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"He is [Martin Luther] King's very modern progeny, born of a bitter sweet marriage of vision and necessity. This masked man is the descendent of King, Che Guevara, Malcolm X, Emiliano Zapata and all the other heroes who preached from the pulpits only to be shot down one by one, leaving bodies of followers wandering around blind and disoriented because they lost their heads. In their place, the world now has a new kind of hero, one who listens more than he speaks, who preaches in riddles not in certainties, a leader who doesn't show his face, who thinks his mask is really a mirror. And in [his movement], we have not one dream of a revolution. But a dreaming revolution."[1] Exaggerated critiques on proposed grandiose personalities are not a unique phenomenon. The above quote, in its essence, articulates the search for a leader, an icon, a single personality in a post-revolutionary era. The poetic cadence, comparative use of past popular champions, and near-desperate undertone convey that the subject is no run-of-the-mill popular usurper. The construction of the ideas set forth hint at exceedingly rare revolutionary qualities and the amalgamation of traits exemplified by juxtaposition eschew the cumbersome rigidity expected in modern political compositions. Revealing that the man who inspired this quote is the leader of a rebel army, further correlations and disconnections become even more apparent. What mere rebel could be this anticipated while embracing the virtues that both hindered and abetted his revolutionary predecessors? The Leftist combination of personalities invoked mix with the announced 'new' course of leadership to captivate the reader. It is this difference that the author, Naomi Klein, seeks to cultivate throughout Leftist movements around the world. The structured Left's defeat, demarcated by the dissolution of the Soviet Union, may have ushered in a post-communist era for many, but for those still seeking a more egalitarian society, adoption of new strategies remains a necessity. "As [Nobel Laureate] Czeslaw Milosz puts it, 'the failure of Marx's dream has created the need for another, not the rejection of all dreams.'"[2] The luminary, not only of the Klein quote, but of the proposed Leftist evolution is Subcomandante Insurgente Marcos. The primarily indigenous guerrilla movement that introduced Subcomandante Marcos to a global audience known as the EZLN (Ejercito Zapatista de Liberacion Nacional) caught global attention on January 1st, 1994 by militantly taking seven municipalities in eastern Chiapas, Mexico.[3] Their general advance towards indigenous autonomy granted them legitimacy and national recognition through meetings, treaties, commentary, and eventually state military intervention by the Mexican government.[4] The Zapatista operation set itself apart from the number of other revolutionary movements throughout Mexico, both past and present, by harnessing the global media and academic attention that they garnered in 1994 to further their endeavors. The EZLN has maintained their spotlight through global communication methods that not only illuminate their own immediate goals, but connect their plight to both similar movements elsewhere and larger sociological/political commentaries on the true essence of neoliberal economic policies. Given the combination of local and global discourses that the EZLN promotes, a spectrum of various works has been produced on the Zapatistas. Historical, political, sociological, anthropological, and even technological narratives have investigated the many facets and ideas that compose the Zapatistas. Divergent schools of thought seeking recognition of their tenets use the EZLN as a case study, poststructural historians tell the tales of ethnic communities becoming active in their lives, anthropologists study behavioral alterations, and social theorists try to bridge ethical and material gaps between the EZLN and larger conceptual ideologies. Beyond outside production of what the EZLN has come to mean to both Mexico and the world, the Zapatistas themselves have also produced their own image to be imprinted in Chiapas, in Mexico, and on the world. The primary architect behind this agency is Marcos. The fall of the Berlin Wall signaled the end of communism and the dismantling of an international structure for the anti-capitalist Left. I argue that the remnants of this Left coalesced around the anti-globalization, anti-neoliberal agenda in the post-communist era. Subcomandante Marcos and the Zapatistas of Mexico came to represent the first, and perhaps, most important symbols of this new resistance. Assigning Marcos this role was the objective of both journalistic and academic authors' fascination with the masked harbinger of equality; coupled with Marcos' own distinguished works, a symbolic caricature developed to which leftists everywhere could attach their vision. As the most visible member and assumed leader of the EZLN, he facilitated a revitalization of revolutionary movement. The Subcomandante's actions and written works spoke to the greater interest of social progress while positioning him as a champion against the offensive of neoliberal capitalism. From a historiographical standpoint, I will examine the dialogue surrounding the evolution of both a general political ideology and the methodology of refreshing its vehicles of transmission via Marcos. The assumption that Western ways of thinking, acting, and living proved to be the 'right' way through a perceived Cold War victory are purely conjecture in certain places and outright fallacious in many others. Examination of Marcos as an architect for a new battle against capitalism and the marginalization it produces provides a continuation to what was thought to be a dead subject. In many ways, the Cold War is not over, or perhaps it too, has evolved to something similar, yet different. Marcos himself tags this new or continuing battle the "Fourth World War: The War Against Oblivion." Contextualizing Marcos within Chiapas and the Historical Rise of the EZLN Subcomandante Marcos, allegedly a former professor of communications at the Metropolitan Autonomous University (Mexico City) by the name of Raphael Sebastian Guillen Vicente, is the self-proclaimed "translator" for the EZLN.[5] Marcos arrived in Chiapas in 1983 and though his journey to, and early exploits in Chiapas have been vaguely chronicled, most sources (including Marcos) confirm his large part in the formation of the EZLN on November 17th, 1983.[6] Marcos chose a destination in Chiapas that had always been on the periphery of the general Mexican ethos. While separate debates question the true institution of the Mexican Revolution and the Constitution it bore (1917) throughout the country, Chiapas remained the penultimate example of a lingering colonial mentality. The PRI (Institutional Revolutionary Party) in Chiapas simply carried on the legacy left by the Spanish colonizers, the ladino caciques and foreign maquiladoras of the 19th century, and the Porfiristas.[7] Even under populist and progressive national movements such as the presidency of Lazaro Cardenas (1934-1940), the Revolution and its promises failed to greatly alter Chiapas. Largely figuring into the equation that assigned the state its social stagnation was the large indigenous population. Blatant racism against these varying members of the larger Mayan family sought to "make the indigenous return to the oblivion where they have been placed for five centuries."[8] These Tzeltals, Tzotzils, Zoques, and Chols were placed as subordinate to both Spanish-ancestry Mexicans (mestizo, ladino) and foreigners. The list of historic crime and corruption committed against indigenous Chiapatecans is far too deep to engage with here, but it must be understood that by the time of Marcos' arrival, "the people of the color of the earth" endured nearly five hundred years of tyranny.[9] Chiapas embodied the ideal situation for an uprising, however, it must be noted that the revolutionaries who came from the city in the early 1980s were not the sole founders of indigenous backlash against the state apparatus. Catholic prelate Samuel Ruiz entered the situation in Chiapas (1959) as the new Bishop at San Cristobal de las Casas. Like many men of God before him, Ruiz came by ecclesiastical order to both help and proselytize to the indigenous. However, he was unaware that the crippling situation of the poor in Chiapas changed men; that through his experiences there he would become an outright proponent and example of liberation theology at work. Rather fortuitously, for Ruiz, the indigenous, and later, Marcos, "I [he] came to San Cristobal to convert the poor but they ended up converting me."[10] Ruiz' immersion into the world of Mayan and Mexican tradition as well as engaging extreme oppression mixed with traditional Catholic sentiments to foment a unique concoction of dissent in Chiapas. Indigenous influence became apparent as early as 1974 when Ruiz helped organize the First Indian Congress in San Cristobal commemorating the birthday of the 16th century Indian-rights activist Fray Bartolome de las Casas (to which San Cristobal de las Casas owes its name). A Tzeltal catechist colors the combination of ethics at work in the native mind as he spoke at the Congress: "God wants us to get out to freedom like the ancient Jewish people…in the lands of another people, called Egypt, they worked as slaves, suffering many wants. Then God spoke in the heart of one of their principales …'I have come down to liberate you from your sufferings, and I am going to bring you to another better land'… [But] they had to get out and fight to gain their freedom…our ancestors too had to unite and struggle to win their lands…We have to gather strength in our hearts, and struggle and suffer much still. We have to struggle against poverty, hunger, and injustice."[11] The story used by the speaker is clearly of a biblical nature echoing the Catholic influence. In addition, announcement of the plight of his peers and a call to fight connote both an indigenous and rebellious agenda. Ruiz christened this ethos the tomar conciencia in which traditional (both indigenous and Catholic) mind-sets are amalgamated with rebellious thoughts and a native, recently active, voice. In Ruiz own words: "to take cognizance, to question received faith, wisdom, and conventions, to become conscious in a new frame of mind that people, things, qualities, conditions, may not be as they had seemed or been supposed to be, to try to discover, recognize, know them as they truly are, and in this knowledge to accept explicitly the obligations of conscience to do good."[12] This potentially explosive arena that was Chiapas by the time Marcos and his cohorts made their pilgrimage was a primary draw for the revolutionaries. Yet, it also verifies that Marcos merely fanned the fire in Chiapas; rebellious ideals had already manifested and the indigenous were not merely passive sheep molded by any leftist-revolutionary to stumble upon the scene. As exemplified by both Ruiz' guidance and a self-generated active voice by native Chiapatecans, the poorest Mexican state only needed a match to ignite.[13] Marcos' small party lived crudely in the jungles of Chiapas those first couple of years where contacts were made both with indigenous peoples and an old revolutionary cell of the Fuerzas de Liberacion Nacional (FLN). The contact and eventual immersion into indigenous society potentially altered his materialist-Marxist-Maoist way of thinking: "[He] came from elsewhere. He spoke to them; they did not understand. Then he entered the mist, he learned to listen and was able to speak. Now he speaks from them; His is the voice of voices."[14] And though the jungle communities affected him greatly, the FLN provided a revolutionary apparatus that harbored remaining structural ties. These early forays into the traditional native ethos while maintaining ties to Western schools of thought and militant movements provided the basis for the unusual discourse that would later garner him global-leftist acclaim. Marcos' notoriety among the FLN grew, which also connected him to other notable organizations and movements such as the Union of Unions and the Emiliano Zapata Peasant Organization. The intellectual seeds he planted throughout the Lacandon communities also solidified support among nonaligned indigenous chasing a different kind of movement. In 1984-85, Marcos was promoted to subcomandante of the newly formed military wing of the FLN, the EZLN. Growing unrest not only in Chiapas, but in Mexico as a whole had not gone without government notice. Both the federal and state governments under PRI control were acclimated to dealing with dissent as unrest had been constant since the Revolution. 1988 marked the beginning of Carlos Salinas de Gortari's 'Solidarity' plan in which the executive sought to combat rebellion and weaken revolutionary movements through appeasement. Cadres were sent to Chiapas (and elsewhere) in essence, to buy off leaders as well as workers, farmers, and peasants. 'Solidarity' politically articulated a new outlook on the downtrodden and a fresh set of methods to bridge the widening socio-economic chasm between Mexico's elite and destitute. Like most promises offered by past Mexican leaders, 'Solidarity' never really came to Chiapas as most funds were simply absorbed by state and local PRI leaders. While results in other states are up for debate, the result in Chiapas was a perpetuation of oppression via 'Solidarity' funds being used to amplify the power of the few. Some funds and programs made it to the rebellious as bribes from local and federal cadres whose marginalizing strategy succeeded in the eventual dissemination of the FLN. Many supporters were either paid off or offered whatever specific necessity they lacked (land, work, etc.). In that sense, simple material gain outweighed ethics for many disenfranchised Chiapatecans Even with the eventual breakup of the complex relationship between the FLN, the Union of Unions, and Ruiz' diocese, many dissatisfied indigenous remained organized. Few government funds, corrupt or not, found their way into the hands of the various Mayan peoples. Salinas further suppressed the indigenous when he implemented a 'dirty war' against remaining outposts of native organization; not unlike numerous neoliberal imperialists before him. Kidnappings, individual murders, and economic support for paramilitary groups with little observance of law became common place.[15] Bishop Samuel Ruiz remained an influential actor in the region and was able to maintain ties to indigenous rights movements throughout Chiapas but the 'dirty war' alongside waning support from a now-government appointed national diocese compromised much control he had over the situation. Regardless, Marcos recognized Ruiz' efforts as a "constant menace to [Chiapas Governor] Gonzalez Garrido's reorganizing projects" and credited him as the epitome of "stubbornness of religious and secular figures who support and preach Catholicism's option for the poor."[16] These two advocates for indigenous rights could not be fundamentally further apart in methodologies to achieve the goal of equality. Marcos sought a military solution and Ruiz' anti-militant response fomented a grating relationship between the two that would carryon throughout the 1990s as both sought divergent means to similar ends. Ruiz continued to search for a peaceful solution within the realms of Mexican legality. Marcos, meanwhile, sought direct confrontation by delegitimizing the state and federal governments through formation of the Clandestine Revolutionary Indian Committee (CCRI) that united former pro-FLN communities of Tzeltal, Chol, Zoque, Tzotzil and Tojolobal. The new political apparatus established complete indigenous control over most aspects of everyday life for the many that remained dissident and concentrated both internal and external political decisions into the hands of traditionally and democratically selected members of the Lacandon communities. Marcos consolidated military control over the still-standing EZLN by cutting all ties with the few remaining FLN commanders. However, the relationship initiated between the EZLN and the CCRI laid a foundation for indigenous group leadership to which he would have to answer. This crucial aspect of granting the indigenous true authority whilst remaining a mere 'subcomandante' of the military wing of the developing autonomous society solidified the authenticity of Marcos' ambitions for complete equality. Tensions in Chiapas finally reached a boiling point when President Salinas introduced reforms of Article 27 to the Mexican Constitution on November 7th, 1991. The amendments meant to demonstrate to the United States, Mexico's commitment to the North American Free Trade Agreement. These reforms were passed the next year and "broke quite dramatically with the taboo-in political rhetoric at least-of no longer protecting the institution of the ejido enshrined in the 1915 Constitution."[17] The dissolution of the ejido, essentially communal land, undermined traditional modes of production tied to closely knit communities and guaranteed the opening of the private land market. In Mexico, this meant that the only people that would have land to 'work' were the ones capable of buying it: the wealthy and foreigners. The ejido system was far from perfect, particularly in Chiapas, as rampant corruption marginalized most ejidatarios, but it minimally provided enough for subsistence in most areas. Killing the ejido doomed millions of poor Mexicans to either choose to starve, or find even worse labor situations. For the indigenous of the Selva Lacondona, it assured them that their land would not remain theirs for very long. In this context, the official break in directive between Ruiz and his peaceful adherents and the EZLN culminated when the CCRI decided to support Marcos' military solution of open revolt. Late in 1993, with Marcos' suggestion, it was decided that in the early hours of January 1st, 1994, the EZLN would attack five to seven municipalities around eastern Chiapas. The date chosen not only offered the potential least resistance due to New Year's festivities, but hinted at the more global dialectic Marcos infused into the EZLN. That day, the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) became official between the United States, Canada, and Mexico. The NAFTA preview outlined in Salinas' reforms already incensed the CCRI and EZLN as outlined by EZLN National Coordinator's assessment below: "They wanted to adapt the country to the needs of the international market, but all they achieved was more poverty and misery. Why? Because the majority were not taken into account by NAFTA. The only thing that was taken into account were the large corporations that can buy and sell. Others, like the indigenous of Chiapas are leftover. They are so poor, they're not even a market."[18] The detrimental effects of land loss through privatization, foreign invitation to usurp Chiapas' rich natural resources, infusion of cheap imported crops, and further alienation of traditional culture marked the now official economic doctrine potentially genocidal for the indigenous. Yet, attacking on 'NAFTA Day', suggested something beyond localized protest for indigenous conservation, it symbolized a last stand against the forces of neoliberalism utterly represented by the adoption of NAFTA. The military initiative that launched the EZLN and Subcomandante Marcos into the global spotlight has been documented thoroughly by both Zapatista authors and interested academics.[19] Battles, or in some cases, non-battles throughout Chiapas in places such as San Cristobal de las Casas, Altamirano, or Ocosingo-where the most blood was shed-are well chronicled. In this sense, further repetition of these stories is unnecessary as what transpired did not form, but introduce Marcos to the world; his persona forged through the basic timeline, peoples, and institutions probably too briefly alluded to prior. The symbolic caricature that global leftist would pin their hopes on. His ingredients include a strong academic background as both a student and professor (allegedly) whose despondency with the status quo motivated an egress from civil society; the journey, both physical and mental to Chiapas undoubtedly shaped his militancy. Upon arrival, the years of living meekly and simply as an Indian and gradual immersion into indigenous traditionalism reshaped, if not softened his structured academic ties. "There was a considerable amount of clashing while we made the adjustment between our orthodox way of seeing the world in terms of bourgeois and proletarians to the community's worldview."[20] Like Ruiz, experiencing the true plight of these people alongside their more simple, yet spiritual presence changed him further. It angered him and invigorated his revolutionary essence. His unique compilation of political, military, ethnological, and social knowledge garnered him undesired clout. However, in the interest of the people who saved him and his own necessity to retard the charge of capitalist 'progress', he seized the moment. Marcos became not only the face of the EZLN, but the framer of modern Zapatismo; the entwinement of both local and global leftist ideology that meshes the revered rhetoric of Mexican Revolutionary hero Emiliano Zapata and his fight for social justice, indigenous Maya traditionalism, Catholic liberation theology and thinly-veiled, if not loose, ties to structured Marxist, Maoist, and Gramscian movement. The nobility of Marcos' 'local' discourse provided the vehicle for larger engagements with the historical marginalization agent of native peoples: Western imperial incursion. Primary among the facets of Western ideas infused globally since the colonial era is the capitalist mindset. For Marcos and the EZLN, the postmodern form of capitalism-neoliberalism and globalization-informed their defiance, as already noted. Their battle garnered enthusiasm among global leftists for Marcos as the voice for a neoteric resistance. His legend among them confirmed by the great number of works produced on the humble "poet guerrilla."[21] International tribute through prose of Marcos surpasses all but the most captivating revolutionaries of yore. British, French, Spanish, Canadian as well as countless Latin American writers' high regard for Marcos motivated what otherwise would be remote and disinterested constituents to reassess the fruits of 'progress'. Further, Marcos himself has produced as many as two hundred essays and published twenty-one books concerning subjects as diverse as political ideology, indigenous rights, and children's literature.[22] Outside Construction of a Revolutionary Icon In the post-communist era, remnants of the structured Left remained alive through Marcos and the Zapatistas. At an incredibly weak point for a fractured Left, a definitive and structured ideology (communism, socialism) tended to alienate people, yet the flexibility of the EZLN's pathos and the perceived purity of their movement subordinated traditional leftist ideals. This pathos was colored for the global audience "due mainly to Marcos" as he etched out a "diary, a poetry, an intellectual account, and an invaluable window into a movement that ha[d] an awareness of its own novelty."[23] The progress of neoliberalism compromised the influence of men like Fidel Castro, Ho Chi Minh, Vladimir Lenin, et al. and the dialectics they espoused were feared by moderate populations. Exemplifying this fear and its ruthless solutions for defiance towards globalization was a Chase Manhattan Bank report demanding the Mexican Government to "eliminate the Zapatistas."[24] In response to an apprehensive modern populace and the neoliberal power brokers who could utilize proven Cold War-style fear-mongering tactics, the global Left sought to deemphasize the iconic revolutionary of yore while promoting an infinitely more moldable one. Further aid to the cause of creating a symbolic personality for the global Left manifested in the simple fact that Marcos and the EZLN never actually seized power. Government control never entered their minds as the Zapatistas identified themselves as "a new political force whose members do not hold or aspire to hold public office or government posts at any level…a political force that does not seek to take power."[25] By not taking or seeking rule, Marcos was immune to the prodigious complications of earlier Leftist icons: their highly disputable and perhaps, tarnishing tenures of leadership. Not unlike the most popular of revolutionary personas, Ernesto "Che" Guevara, Marcos' impassivity towards power fueled his symbolism. Even when Che's original revolution did succeed in Cuba, he left state-building to Castro and after a short period working within the government, opted to take leave and propagate revolutions in other indentured corners of the world. This concept was not lost upon the authors of Marcos' ascendance as Che's name is echoed in over half of the works cited for this paper. Manufacture of Marcos as a revolutionary icon splintered equally between his flirtations with media and fame, reciprocal praise from the media in addition to pundits and academics, and his own published works which invoked such presence that Mexican journalist Alma Guillermoprieto claimed he practically fought the Zapatista war singlehandedly.[26] "Every positive story written about Marcos raise[d] the political cost of a Mexican army assault on the ragtag rebels…Good press-in Mexico and in the U.S.-[was] the Zapatistas strongest defense."[27] These interloper and insider produced assignments on Marcos revealed his revolutionary character and helped the cause of the Zapatistas. The product of this mode of writing was a man who stood for freedom, democracy, indigenous rights, and global equality; he contested the detrimental effects of neoliberal capitalist progress, and broke with conventional guerrilla militancy using the media as his "long-range missile."[28] Even the balaclava that he still has yet to remove in public represented something newer and greater in revolutionary prose. Intrigued writers considered that: "Marcos, the quintessential anti-leader, insists that his black mask is a mirror, so that Marcos is gay in San Francisco, black in South Africa, an Asian in Europe, a Chicano in San Ysidro, an anarchist in Spain, a Palestinian in Israel, a Mayan Indian in the streets of San Cristobal, a Jew in Germany, a Gypsy in Poland, a Mohawk in Quebec, a pacifist in Bosnia, a single woman on the Metro at ten p.m., a peasant without land, a gang member in the slums, an unemployed worker, an unhappy student and, of course, a Zapatista in the mountains. In other words, he is simply us: we are the leader we've been looking for."[29] The ethos many leftist authors of varying works are enslaved by inherently places their values and judgments into a certain context. This context, a Marxist, Gramscian, poststructural, or any other number of leftist methodological approaches, either validates or rejects the subject of analysis based primarily on how relatable it is to their professed discourse. In the case of Marcos, his revolutionary, but ill-defined leftist ideology facilitated the adulation of very diverse authors. By breaking with not only guerrilla norms in tactics, but the structured ties of regimented schools of thought, he garnered an anomalous form of revolutionary quality in which even his mask had different meanings. From austere, disciplined perspectives loyal to certain methodologies, Marcos was moldable. Both his qualities and the directives of the EZLN could be made to fit into any number of ideological dialectics. Henry Veltmeyer, a highly regarded sociologist at St. Mary's University (Nova Scotia), provides a succinct example by contextualizing Marcos through a blatantly Marxist methodological lens. Veltmeyer's engagement with Marcos' unique and ultimately moldable language surfaces when he analyzes the Subcomandante's description of Chiapas as a "marginal zone" (un bolsillo de olvido).[30] Marcos insinuated that Chiapas is on the outskirts of the Mexican infrastructural and social umbrella and Veltmeyer duly notes that in Marxist terms, he meant that Chiapas and its citizens are clearly considered to be of a decumbent class. Further shaping of Marcos into Marxist ideals appears with the introduction of Marxist language within the Subcomandante's thoughts: "Marcos speaks poetically of the 'bloody jaws' of the 'wild beast' (imperialism) whose teeth have sunk deeply into the throat of southeastern Mexico, drawing out large pools of blood: tribute in the form of 'petroleum, electrical energy, cattle, money, coffee, banana, honey, [and] corn.'"[31] The sentence structure is composed so that it is difficult to break the author's words (imperialism, tribute) from Marcos'. Beyond a Marxist interpretation of Marcos' words, Veltmeyer argues that structured class-based analyses are not only necessary to provide a complete voice for the indigenous of Chiapas, but that hard evidence indicates that EZLN links to worker, teacher, and peasant movements solidify a goal that extends beyond indigenous autonomy. While Veltmeyer' tried to fit the EZLN and Marcos into a Marxist sphere of thought, Kathleen Bruhn used similar corollaries upholding the less structured sub-school of Marxism as professed by Antonio Gramsci. She analyzes the linguistic characteristics set forth by the EZLN and how they are articulated by Marcos as "most documents are the intellectual product of a single author, Subcomandante Marcos, the EZLN's chief spokesman, chief military strategist, and propagandist."[32] By making this immediate assertion, she attributes the Gramscian language indicative of the EZLN to Marcos; in turn, her assessment merits Marcos a more philosophical appeal. Application of an earlier alluded to and 'less rigid' discourse shapes the cognitive gap between the EZLN's relative success in comparison to other revolutionary movements in Mexico. Bruhn points to the varied interpretations of revolutionary cause that may be assumed when reading Marcos: "The EZLN connects with a tradition of struggle, with a cultural tradition and produces this language that succeeds in penetrating strata of society through symbols. It touches very top intellectuals or very poor simple people…Let us say that Zapatismo knocks at a door, the door of political language; it finds it open…and enters."[33] Marcos, himself, announces the notion that the Zapatistas confront language directly; their ideology enters into political and traditional language and alters them. For advocates of adaptable responses of dissent, this quote provides life; it affirms that Marcos as the "spokesperson" deliberately calls into question the rigidity of other discourses and movements through linguistics. Gramsci's renowned interpretation of Marxist ideals offers a similar rejection of such structure while maintaining a flexibility that is inherently moldable. While Marcos' language bolstered more academic leftist philosophies like that of Bruhn and Veltmeyer, his 'way with words' also abetted his lionization among the media. "Marcos's preoccupation with symbolic language is certainly worthy of a student of Althusser…and [his] seductive knack has allowed him to become a faceless stand-in for all oppressed, an anonymous vessel for all fantasies from the sexual to the bellicose, a star."[34] His popularity grew such that certain authors focused on Marcos solely without even eluding to the Zapatista cause. He was dubbed "King of the Jungle" in one such article that compared Zapatista headquarters to Studio 54. The writer, Michael McCaughan, identified a number of famous Marcos fans who had been known to either visit or support the Zapatistas such as Danielle Mitterrand, Bianca Jagger, Octavio Paz, and Regis Debray who reportedly ranked Marcos the greatest living writer in Latin America.[35] Even well-known personalities from the U.S. sought audience with the Subcomandante which tinged on ironic. Even though most were associated with a fringe left, Marcos clearly identified the U.S. government and corporations as his larger nemesis. The 'American way of life' embodied the great perpetrator and/or instigator of indigenous genocide so to speak-the entity really pulling the strings of a Mexican puppet executive. Regardless, people like Oliver Stone, Jane Fonda, and Tom Hayden made the pilgrimage to Chiapas. The widely popular and very political California-based rock group Rage Against the Machine also made it a point to bring awareness to the plight of Chiapas. The lead singer Zack De La Rocha donned a shirt with the single red star of the EZLN in all public appearances and the hit song "People of the Sun" was written to pay tribute to the Zapatistas. De La Rocha and numerous other American musicians also made the pilgrimage to meet Marcos at various global gatherings such as the 1996 Encuentro in La Realidad, Chiapas. The well-known visual arts professor and electronic activist Ricardo Dominguez enthusiastically augmented this star power by mirroring the guerilla's persona in dramatic productions. Dominguez, an American, had taken up dressing and performing like the Subcomandante in the U.S., Europe, and particularly on-line. Dominguez' dual-authored article with Jill Lane describing his travelling and web-based artistic renditions of the EZLN titled "Digital Zapatistas" also served as a political announcement of sorts. His production company, Electronic Disturbance Theater (EDT) established in 1994, was actively engaged in a "radical shift from the use of the internet for communication and documentation to its use as a space for nonviolent, direct action." He further outlines the main premise of the EDT as a response to a "call by the communities in Chiapas, Mexico, to bear witness to the global condition of neoliberalism."[36] Dominguez explained that the Subcomandante's theatric lead role in global resistance motivated this technological-watershed endeavor: he was "the latest popular hero in a tradition of activists" and could be compared to "Zapata [himself], Sandino, Che, and Arafat."[37] As the "subcomandante of performance", Dominguez' outwardly imaginative shows of revolutionary qualities sweetened the prominence of Marcos and expedited foreign adulation for the EZLN. Dominguez understood that his portrayal of Marcos through live and electronic media spread Zapatismo, however, no mention was made of how his role likely fueled a growing cult of personality. Lane's very tedious project in Dominguez' article was to dissect the unquantifiable product of the Zapatista siege upon the information age, in which Zapatistas, by virtue of the internet, were sprouting up everywhere. The face of Marcos behind the balaclava could be seen just as readily in California as in Chiapas. In fact, the article cites twenty-eight Zapatista-based or sympathetic websites and articles attributed, at least, partially to "Digital Zapatistas" and the 'fake' Marcos. Such publicity for a mere impersonator surely verifies the gravitational pull of the genuine Marcos. Complete investigation into the role Marcos had filled as revolutionary media darling gained serious traction as a subject in and of itself. The short booklet, Broadening the Struggle and Winning the Media War by Nicholas Henck, places due emphasis on the history of Zapatista public relations. Henck dedicates forty pages to considering how the Zapatistas, through Marcos, took advantage of all modes of communication to garner international support. His work personifies a grounded, scientific dive into the success that Marcos had in wrestling the media tiger, an entity that "even if it cannot be wholly tamed, can at least be ridden, and sometimes even in the direction one wants."[38] Event-based prose assumed results echoing an argument that transforms the piece into a treatise for other revolutionaries to emulate: "Their struggle should act as a template for others to follow and improve upon if possible. We have witnessed the key ingredients necessary for a successful guerilla public relations campaign: a highly charismatic, eloquent and erudite leader; technological proficiency; the forging of bonds with civil society (especially radicals such as students, intellectuals, Trades Unions, music idols and movie stars, etc.); the knowledge of when to fight and when not to, of when to talk and when to remain silent; the ability to shift one's emphasis and not appear fickle and to adapt oneself to a changing situation; and finally, and most importantly, to be fortunate, especially in one's timing."[39] Henck's subtitle even alludes to something other than a plain historiography or article: "Marcos Mystique", "Guerrilla Chic", and Zapatista P.R. The term "Marcos Mystique" is not even treated as possessive-Henck coins the term as a noun; as something one aspires to have or command. The creation of this aura, "The Cult of Marcos", reveals that for many writers, both academic and journalistic, the lure of the Subcomandante is too compelling to ignore. Beyond the production of Marcos by all parties, including himself, the romanticized ideal of a revolutionary remained appealing; the noble cause, the true freedom, the chance to start something new, living against the grain, and being a nuisance to taken-for-granted power structures. All of these concepts, though underlying, further reveal that writers possibly tried to live vicariously through Marcos. Henck analyzes these yearnings, yet, while projecting them upon the media as the fad titled, "Guerrilla Chic", he cannot help but fall into the same feeling of fanciful longing with the ideation of Marcos. The examples cited here, both academic and popular, represent only a drop in the pool of literature on Marcos. However, each indicates the varying grades of celebrity he merited among leftist constituents. Veltmeyer and Bruhn clearly espouse traditional leftist ideals through their conscription of Marcos into Marxist and Gramscian ethics respectively. Dominguez' artistic rendition of Marcos found its primary audience at universities, art districts, and progressive websites-all linked in one form another to more blatantly leftist sites. These arenas for performance speak to the global appeal of Marcos. Henck's original intent in his work was to utilize Marcos and the Zapatistas as a perfect model of waging post-revolutionary war through the media, yet he cannot seem to help immersing himself in the new Zapatismo. Further, all the celebrities and political figures that are known advocates for progressive ideas and sought audience with Marcos confirmed his rising star. Finally, the gushing quotes from respected writers such as Klein, Guillermoprieto, McCaughan, Paz, and Hayden assert that the Subcomandante is that catalyst the Left had been missing; the living, more modern 'Che'. Feeding the Masses: Marcos' Unintentional and Intentional Self-Production So what was it about Marcos that motivated leftist constituents from all walks of life and different corners of the world to construct such an iconographic image of the revolutionary? Portions of the answer have already appeared here to include the overwhelming sympathy for the Zapatista movement, the pioneering and nonviolent forms of resistance employed, and the legitimacy of the actions of both the Zapatistas and Marcos' within the Zapatista framework. However, tantamount to those concepts, and potentially of even more preponderance are the words and images Marcos delineated about himself, the EZLN, and the larger global matter of contention with neoliberalism. Self-production undoubtedly played a key component to the growing love-affair between leftists and the Subcomandante. Alma Guillermoprieto affectionately colors the impact of his local self-production on journalists: "The Marcos whom I and other journalists interviewed in the Zapatista control zone was a mesmerizing personality-self-possessed, considerate, ironic and theatrical. He liked to make journalists spend hours, or days, waiting for him, and then he would appear in the dead of night and talk endlessly, puffing on a pipe, tugging at the uncomfortable ski mask, and asking as many questions as he answered-uncannily well informed about the intellectual and media world beyond Chiapas… He has created his own dazzling image as a masked mito genial-his term, meaning an inspired act of mythmaking. He has staged a very real, threatening war on the Mexican state based on almost no firepower and a brilliant use of Mexican's most resonant images: the Revolution, the peasants' unending struggle for dignity and recognition, the betrayed Emiliano Zapata… It had not dawned on me then that the most visible and critical part of the Zapatistas' revolution was the letters that the Mexican press published regularly-particularly the long, sometimes poetic, sometimes irreverent, personified postscripts that are the Subcomandante's contribution to epistolary art."[40] Initial analysis of Guillermoprieto's impression of Marcos leaves little doubt that there was a definitive thought-process behind his interactions with the press. Lengthy waits were common complaints for many reporters seeking an audience with the Subcomandante. While security measures formed part of the excuse, a playful if not pretentious build-up of anticipation in the minds of reporters completed the reasoning. Additionally many journalists commented on how knowledgeable he was about each interviewer surprisingly engaging in more personal conversations. He also admittedly manufactured a myth so resonantly powerful in the local ethos that militant action by the government could only be seen as further betrayal of the Mexican Revolution. Guillermoprieto concludes that this myth-making through both action and prose was perfected as a craftsmanship worthy of exhibit. Naomi Klein drew a similar conclusion in an article she titled "The Unknown Icon." Centered on the 2001 Zapatista march to Mexico City to reengage the government in negotiation, Klein's article, like many others, inadvertently becomes an ode to Marcos' political prowess. Klein appears to have come to the party late, however, as painting the Subcomandante as "unknown" as late as 2001 assumes there was a prior dearth in public conception of Marcos. That was certainly not the case and Klein's rhetoric, while following the same pattern of adoration of other authors, does hint at a more global role for Marcos. She draws similar conclusions to Guillermoprieto's self myth-making impression: "Marcos seems keenly aware of himself as an irresistible romantic hero. He's an Isabel Allende character in reverse-not the poor peasant who becomes a Marxist rebel, but a Marxist intellectual who becomes a poor peasant." She goes on to connect these points with Marcos' newfound, if not, perplexing sex-appeal and trademark humor: "He plays with his character, flirts with it, saying he can't reveal his real identity for fear of disappointing his female fans."[41] These flirtations with character that Klein references are most clear in Marcos' fictitious works. He pens these works "in a tone so personal and poetic, so completely and unmistakably his own, that he is constantly undercutting and subverting the anonymity that comes from his mask and pseudonym."[42] Marcos produced twenty-one books and over two-hundred essays and communiqués from 1993 to the current day. The diverse topics range from Mayan folk tales to treatises against neoliberalism to comedic satires. The most well-known and loved creations in the Marcos library are the tales of an imaginary beetle named Durito and the Mayan wise man, Old Don Antonio. These two characters are written about separately with Durito representing the modern intellectual and revolutionary side of Marcos that dabbles with both local and global politics; Antonio paints his more traditional side infused within by the indigenous of the Lacandon. Both characters have garnered fame for their opinions, intellect, humor, and symbolism-Antonio as an indigenous theoretical founder of the EZLN who reiterates (and alters) ancient Mayan myths, beliefs, and cultural moors; Durito as a beetle knight-errant in the style of Don Quixote whose humorous adventures are colored polemically. Latin American literary expert Kristine Vanden Berghe's interrogation of the language in Marcos' main characters elicits a grander goal to relate Antonio and Durito to EZLN objectives and beliefs which emphatically lends more credence to Marcos' colossal role within the Zapatista movement.[43] She further understands that these two symbols in ideological stories relate directly to the EZLN and the general ethos behind its constituents.[44] Marcos introduced these windows into himself, Durito and Antonio, to the world at roughly the same time in 1994. Again, both mean to attach themselves to polar intellectualisms within Marcos and comprise an innovative ideology that meshes modern structure with native tradition, however, Durito, also offers a little more. The tales of Durito and his engagement with the world and Marcos, himself, offer further insight into the author. Not only does Durito more colorfully engage with the resistance to neoliberalism, but his personality and rhetoric satirize his creator. The "little smoking beetle, very well read and an even better talker, gave himself the task of giving his company to a soldier, el Sup [Marcos' nickname-short for Subcomandante]."[45] He was a "self-dubbed knight-errant" who clearly and concisely emblematized Marcos' affection for Cervantes' Don Quixote. This playful flirtation with the character of Don Quixote not only means to tribute Cervantes' renowned classic, but offers insight into how Marcos views himself: as a modern do-gooder with a pure heart, yet shackled by misfortune and clumsiness. Writing as an outsider assessing his own ego, Marcos uses Durito's 'Quixoteness' to sarcastically echo his acknowledgement of his own growing legend as "millions of women sigh for him, thousands of men speak his name with respect, and hundreds of thousands of children worship him."[46] However unlikely Marcos was to truly believe in his own cult of personality, brief engagements with his ego through Durito serve as a gateway for deflection. Durito came to the world through a letter Marcos wrote to a child, Mariana Moguel, who had sent the Zapatistas a cherished drawing shortly after the initial military action. Marcos responded with a letter to her that told the story of how he met the little beetle. The story itself encompasses much of what makes Marcos' writing so appealing. The infusion of humor, polemics, colorful imagery, and poetic cadence connote El Sup's literary gift. Short of offering the tale here in its entirety, the early exchange between Marcos and Durito-who appears both as representative of a specific side of Marcos and as a distinct conscience-ala Jiminy Cricket-left little doubt in the public imaginary that this was not 'just another' guerilla militant seeking revolution. Yet, even in this early piece, modern capitalism comes under fire, albeit humorously. Durito indicates understanding neoliberalism is relevant for a mere beetle in the Lacandon Jungle as the counteroffensive by the EZLN makes his home quite dangerous: "we beetles need to know how long we are going to have to make sure that you do not squash us with your big boots."[47] Marcos' sarcasm in this sequence is obscured, yet apparent. He definitively marks neoliberalism as detrimental, but makes light of it as merely leaving beetles vulnerable to being squashed. The tales of Durito do not solely include comedic exchanges, however. "The Glass to See to the Other Side" follows Durito through the streets of Mexico City. The capital is clearly meant to symbolize the monotonous and dehumanizing effects of the neoliberal world. Durito walks the streets unnoticed "for the simple reason that in this city no one sees anymore."[48] In other words, everyone is too busy, too engaged with materials, too used to the homogenizing effects that global capitalism has upon culture that even a piano-playing beetle dressed-up like Humphrey Bogart goes unnoticed. Durito echoes: "This city is sick, it is sick from loneliness and fear. It is a great collective of solitudes. It is a collection of cities, one for each resident. It's not about sums of anguish, but about a potency; each loneliness is multiplied by the number of lonely people that surrounded it. It is as though each person's solitude entered a House of Mirrors, like those you see in the county fairs. Each solitude is a mirror that reflects another solitude, and like a mirror, bounces off more solitudes."[49] He goes onto notice a music box in a store window with a single, statuesque ballerina poised to dance. Her essence meant to reveal that there is still hope for this city. Durito, outside the window, begins to play a piano and the ballerina begins to dance. This is his goodbye gift to the city and as Marcos tells it, the city never expected one. The colorful depiction by El Sup goes on to contrast the difference between the mirrors and the mere glass separating Durito and his ballerina. When it is done, the protagonist asks: "Will you always be behind the glass pane? Will you always be on the other side of my over here, and will I always be on this side of your over there?"[50] As Durito looks back, he notices the ballerina is gone, her escape allows hope to survive, even in Mexico City, for Durito, for Marcos, for the EZLN, and for the world. The deep nature of this tale marks the Subcomandante's versatility in prose and poetic quotes assuredly added to his growing legion. He completes Durito's journey to the capital with a quote that sounds like it should appear on a Hallmark card and not a revolutionary's lips: "Happiness is like a gift; it lasts for a moment, and it is worth it."[51] Durito's adventures thereafter alternate between spoofs on Quixote and deeper metaphoric engagements with neoliberalism. Marcos injects himself as a character into most of the stories morphing Durito from a vibrant user-friendly version of the Subcomandante to a sidekick; again, a sort of conscience. In contrast, the tales of Old Don Antonio place Marcos into the role of student. Antonio is clearly the wise teacher and in metaphorical and assumed metaphysical oral histories, relates Mayan traditionalism to Marcos who passes it on to his audience. While 'Antonio' is fictive in Macros' work, the character is based upon the real likeness and wisdom of an EZLN founding member. Anyone remotely familiar with American Indian or African tribal lore can find similar essences in these stories as they paint a more naturalistic and earthly relationship between peoples, the physical world, and the spiritual realm. A perfect example deals with mirrors and certainly motivated Marcos' discussion with them in the above cited story of Durito in Mexico City. Antonio states that the moon itself is a mirror created by a punishment from the gods toward an ambitious lake who manipulated other natural wonders to reach the sky. The gods meant for lakes to be in the ground as keepers of the light they placed inside the earth. When this rogue lake sought to travel the skies, it broke the rules and was turned into the moon, never to have its own light again and merely impersonate a mirror. "When the moon strolls over a lake, the mirror looks at itself in the mirror. And no matter what, the moon is never happy or sad, she is malcontent."[52] What becomes apparent in this story about the creation of the moon and mirrors themselves, is that through metaphor, Marcos clearly indicates that being a mirror (like in Durito's tale) is ultimately undesirable. The lake's ambition to be 'more' and to disobey its inherent place on the earth robbed it of its own identity and all it could be was reflective of something else. Again, the concept derides neoliberalism-those that continue to acquire material beyond necessity or that must be better than others can only achieve these ends by marginalizing people, places, cultures-pretty much anything. The irony to this facet of the neoliberal ethic is that in creating a need for more, people within society all want the same 'more'. Thus, they lose their individualism and become solely mirrors. Most tales of Antonio make similar subliminal assertions and convey traditionalist Indian-type metaphors. However, certain points of contention arise from a few Zapatista detractors and stem from the stories related by Antonio. Being indigenous and specifically Mayan, many accuse these stories of contributing to an ethnocentric movement. These stories are not the sole proprietor of this concept, but their publishing certainly provided opponents of the Zapatistas a tangible straw to grasp. A quote from "The Story of the Seven Rainbows" marks the people that comprise the Zapatista communities as the "true ones" several times and could be construed to situate these Mayan descendents above others. "And that is the agreement arrived at by the first gods and men and women of corn, the true ones. And ever since that afternoon of happiness and knowing, they spend their lives making bridges in death. The bridges are always made of colors, of clouds and of light to go from one place to the other, to carry out the tasks that give birth to the new world, that makes us good seven times seven walking seven, the men and women of corn, the true ones. Making bridges, they live, making themselves bridges, they die."[53] The words "true ones" is apparent and it certainly refers to the "people of corn" as Mayan descendents have called themselves. That said, the story itself relates that the different colors of the rainbow are all important and that the bridges these people build contribute to their maintenance as well as birthing a new world. In other words, Antonio does iterate the importance of the corn people, but he does so as bridge builders between differences. To create a new and better world, all of the colors are required and Antonio's people are endowed with the ability to ensure that all are included. This finalizing thought could not more perfectly equate to modern leftist ideals of diversity, equality, and democracy. Furthering this rhetoric on the importance of 'all' through chromatic metaphor is Antonio's tale that Marcos turned into a children's book, The Story of Colors. The book follows the lineal creation of the seven major colors by the gods through imaginative and accidental discovery. Marcos also identifies the macaw as the primary agent for maintaining all the colors lest the world and the gods ever forget what they were. While the book received global acclaim, it created controversy in the U.S. as certain themes such as lovemaking and smoking as well as the neoliberal construct of Marcos as antagonistic to American values scared publishers away. Eventually it found its way into the market through smaller printing companies and made a marginal impact. Thematically, the book is a perfect way to get younger children to understand the basic premise of the Zapatista cause. It is broken down to the lowest common denominator on the last page as the macaw represents Zapatismo for children: "The macaw took hold of the colors, and so it goes strutting about just in case men and women forget how many colors there are and how many different ways of thinking, and that the world will be happy if all the colors and ways of thinking have their place."[54] Through both Antonio and Durito, Marcos is able to convey almost the entirety of the new Zapatismo and the EZLN ideologies. He meshes anti-neoliberal rhetoric with Mayan traditionalism and idealist-styled prose that clearly advocates equality, diversity, democracy, and the social movement forward necessary to meet these goals. The imaginative methodology of utilizing these characters further outlines the innovative form of revolution he sparked. Beyond the primary characters discussed here, Marcos authored a number of other metaphorical, poetic, comedic, and political-satirical 'stand alone' works that mate well with both Antonio and Durito.[55] It is, however, these two seemingly divergent characters that are windows (and perhaps even mirrors) into the thoughts that compose Marcos; they're from different worlds, but they meet in one space, in Marcos' mind, and equally compose the ideas that make the man and 'his' movement unique and necessary to the global left's resistance. More direct confrontations with neoliberalism were common place throughout Marcos communiqués, published articles, and political letters and thorough analysis of all would only provide further ammunition for leftist ideologues looking for a shepherd. Yet, one in particular titled, "The Fourth World War Has Begun", is possibly the most candid and cogent dissection of global capitalism written by anyone. Critiques on socio-economic policies are relatively numerous. Many even, in their most basic essence, articulate similar blatant contempt for progressive, post-revolutionary capitalism. However, Marcos' poetic cadence, variegated use of metaphor, and venomous undertone convey that he is no customary polemic writer. The construction of the ideas set forth solidify his scholarly background and lack the cumbersome rigidity expected in academia point decidedly to his immersion into indigenous and lower-class culture. Who else could be this academic in his approach while eschewing the cold blandness that hindered his revolutionary predecessors? The Leftist allusions in a most elementary manner could be made to Marx, Lenin, Trotsky, Mao, and many others, yet Marcos' words captivate differently. It is this difference that he seeks to cultivate throughout Leftist movements around the world. He begins the article by historically contextualizing this new war against neoliberal progress. "As a world system, neoliberalism is a new war for the conquest of territory. The ending of the Third World War-meaning the Cold War-in no sense means that the world has gone beyond the bipolar and found stability under the domination of a single victor." He explains further that these "vast territories, wealth, and above all, a huge and available workforce lie waiting for the world's new master." The new master he points to is not a single entity-it is not a person, a government, nor a nation; it is the 'free' financial market. He empathically describes that: "Globalization is merely the totalitarian extension of the logic of the finance markets to all aspects of life. Where they were once in command of their economies, the nation states (and their governments) are now commanded-or rather telecommanded-by the same basic logic of financial power, commercial free trade. In addition, this logic has profited from permeability created by development of telecommunications to appropriate all aspects of social activity. At last, a world war which is totally total!" By revealing that national sovereignty has been compromised by commerce he assigns the war its global role, but unlike globalization supporters, Marcos argues that world markets erode government accountability, destroy culture, and marginalize non-producers/consumers. He uses metaphor to color the burgeoning and grating relationship being formed between national and international interests. "The son (neoliberalism) is devouring the father (national capital), and in the process, is destroying the lies of capitalist ideology; in the new world order there is no democracy nor freedom, neither equality nor fraternity. The planetary stage is transformed into a new battlefield in which chaos reigns." Delineating more issues with the process, Marcos compares modern politicians to mere "company mangers" meant to serve only the market. He indicates that the dehumanizing effect of neoliberalism means to eliminate all persons "who are of no use to the economy" and that the only commodities flow freely in the new hypermarket, "not people." All those who remain included in the neoliberal plan become homogenized; cultureless and based on a single model of being: American. Marcos goes onto break down each facet of neoliberal discourse and the near-suicidal direction it is taking the world. The landmark quote of the treatise, almost Manifesto-esque in its imagery and directive encompasses the exclusive nature of his prose: "In the cabaret of globalization, the state performs a striptease, at the end of which it is left wearing the minimum necessary: its powers of repression. With its material base destroyed, its sovereignty and independence abolished, and its political class eradicated, the nation state increasingly becomes a mere security apparatus in the service of the mega-enterprises which neoliberalism is constructing. Instead of orienting public investment toward social spending, it prefers to improve the equipment which enables it to control society more effectively."[56] This quote as with the rest of the piece, leaves no doubt that for Marcos, his battle for indigenous rights in Mexico is only one facet in the larger resistance to the neoliberal "cabaret" bamboozling the globe. Concluding Thoughts The ultimate failures of neoliberal capitalism are difficult to assess from the vantage point of citizens residing in any of the limited handful of economically dominant states. All are endowed with the basic necessities required for mere survival and most are granted the means to attain much more. Idealized versions of free market economies are created in a general ethos and perpetuated through social educational indoctrination. Order is maintained through continued promise of material gain while sources of potential strife are usually quietly quelled through a number of different methods. Most importantly, however, is that the comfortable populace must remain ignorant to the effects that its lifestyle has on a global scale. This necessary ignorance can either be achieved through state sponsorship or individual cooptation as many openly choose to ignore the plight of others. As long as more can be consumed and their lifestyles are not directly compromised, there is no need to recognize that the global support system necessary to maintaining this perpetuation is oppression. Common practice among critics of this ensconced ignorance is to call into attention the environmental impact of the neoliberal ethos, however, dominance, subjugation, and indirect abrogation of 'developing world' peoples was rarely connected on the same premise. Recognition of a developing and grating relationship, articulated by the quote below, had been highly glossed-over. "The key to the dynamic response of the peasant sector to neoliberal capitalism is the generation of a new structure of class relationships and conditions. Under the conditions of this structure, working-class organizations and social movements, hitherto conceived by many as the central revolutionary social subject, by and large have been weakened and disarticulated by the forces of neoliberal capitalism and their leadership either accommodated to the prevailing system or deficient."[57] Yet this announcement by Henry Veltmeyer reveals that dialogue on the negative effects of neoliberalism is now fully engaged due in large part to the emergence of the EZLN. The Marcos-infused revolutionary movement of southern Mexico garnered worldwide recognition using, oddly enough, the internet and modern media; methods of communication formed, promoted by, and grounded in neoliberal concepts. This broad affront against neoliberalism was/is greatly abetted through the conduit of the Zapatistas and their ascendance can be attributed considerably to Marcos. The irony is that this sought-after leader of a potential global Leftist rebellion did not recognize himself as a leader even within the EZLN; hence, keeping the title 'Subcomandante' and the intentional creation of the CCRI with democratically-elected Comandantes. Or maybe he appealed to a new kind of leadership as Naomi Klein claimed he did. Anthropologist George Collier indentifies varying new concepts of leadership both fomented by the Zapatistas and their neoliberal counter-parts. Collier differentiates between the two leadership types as ranked-based and class-based. He indicates that there is a growing evolution of rank-based leadership into class-based leadership in burgeoning capitalist societies. Class-based leaders, needless to say, see the world materialistically and assign status based upon manufactured ideas of worth; there is no such thing as intrinsic value-including for people. Collier fits his definition of rank-based leader and the assumed benevolence of such upon Marcos. "They act effectively on other's behalf and [are] adept at pooling and channeling others' resources for both personal and the common good. Rank-based leaders often served their communities by acting as brokers with the outside world or as intermediaries to other groups."[58] The saturation of work done on Subcomandante Marcos has received the lion's share of both scholarly and lay attention. A self-proclaimed and celebrated democratic ideal has been perpetuated by both the EZLN and outsiders considering the EZLN. This ideal essentially indicates that the Zapatistas are truly a bottom-up, clandestine organization that has no direct leadership but that of the whole represented by the CCRI. However, utilizing Collier's rank-based assessment, few would argue that any other member has nearly the influence of Marcos does when dealing with the outside world. Internal subordination to the larger indigenous constituency only canonizes him further among his dedicatees. Debate on how to define Marcos as a leader within the Zapatista framework is ultimately unnecessary to begin with. There is little doubt that the cult of personality birthed by both self and outside production of a myth- "The King of the Jungle", "The Unknown Icon", "The Subcommander of Spin", or simply "El Sup" has crowned the man the New Left's champion against neoliberalism. This global recognition speaks to the idea that even if the EZLN itself does not declare itself as 'led', the new world they are seeking their place in has and that leader is not theirs alone. [1] Naomi Klein, "The Unknown Icon", The Guardian (March 3rd, 2001), pp. 123. [2] Found in: Nicholas Henck, Broadening the Struggle and Winning the Media War: 'Marcos Mystique,' Guerilla Chic, and Zapatista PR (Montreal: Kersplebedeb, 2002),pp. 11. [3] El Kilombo Intergalactico, Beyond Resistence: Everything (Durham: Paper Boat Press, 2007) pp. 3 [4] Bart Maddens and Kristine Vanden Berghe, "Ethnocentrism, Nationalism, and Post-Nationalism in the Tales of Subcomandante Marcos", Mexican Studies/Estudios Mexicanos (Winter, 2004), pp. 124. [5] In an effort to debunk the growing mystique of both the EZLN and Marcos, the Mexican government sought to unmask the revolutionary by identifying him as Guillen. They traced his origins to a politically active family in the northern state of Tamaulipas. Marcos has neither confirmed nor denied this allegation. His self-proclaimed status of translator was revealed in an interview for the book Subcomandante Marcos: El Sueno Zapatista, Barcelona, Plaza Y Janez (1997) written by Yvon Le Bot. [6] Gloria Munoz Ramirez, The Fire and the Word: A History of the Zapatista Movement (San Francisco: City Light Publishers, 2008), pp. 13. [7] Porfiristas alludes to all Mexicans whom supported and thrived under the dictatorship of Porfirio Diaz (1876-1880, 1884-1911). His rule, dubbed the Porifiriato, was marked by steady economic growth through consistent erosion of individual rights, capitulation of precious resources to foreign enterprises, social stratification, nullifying public and communal lands, and an attack upon traditional cultures (both indigenous and Catholic). His attempts at rapid modernization through these methods remain one of the most controversial topics in Mexican historiography. [8] Tom Hayden, "In Chiapas", from the Zapatista Reader (New York: Nation Books, 2002), pp. 88. [9] Rachel Neumann, "We Make the Road by Walking: Lessons from the Zapatista Caravan", Monthly Review (June 2001): www.monthlyreview.org [10] John Womack Jr., Rebellion in Chiapas (New York: The New York Press, 1999), pp. 27. [11] Found in John Womack Jr., Rebellion In Chiapas (New York: The New York Press, 1999), pp. 31. [12] Found in John Womack Jr., Rebellion In Chiapas (New York: The New York Press, 1999, pp. 23. [13] Complete historical analyses on the conflicted state of Chiapas Pre-EZLN as well as the influence of Bishop Samuel Ruiz can be found in George Collier and Elizabeth Quaratiello's Basta! (Oakland: Food First Books, 1994). [14] Eduarado Galeano, "Chiapas Chronicle", La Jornada (April 7th, 1996), pp. 49. [15] John Womack Jr., Rebellion in Chiapas (New York: The New York Press, 1999), Chapter 16. [16] Subcomandante Marcos, "A Storm and a Prophecy" [unpublished in 1992] in Our Word is our Weapon (New York: Seven Stories Press, 2003), pp. 29. [17] Memorandum 0261-3050(94)00025-5, "The Reform of Article 27 and Urbanisation of the Ejido in Mexico", Bulletin of Latin American Research, (September 1994): pp. 327. [18] Javier Elorriaga, Zapatista, A Big Noise Film (1999), min. 10:16. [19] Already cited throughout this work examples that encapsulate the entire build-up to the militant portion of Zapatista history include Gloria Munoz Ramirez' The Fire and the Word, John Womack's Rebellion in Chiapas, and Geroge Collier's Basta!. [20] Subcomandante Marcos, Found in: Alma Guillermoprieto's, "The Unmasking", The New Yorker (March 13th, 1995), pp. 42. [21] Kathleen Bruhn, "Gramsci and the Palabra Verdadera: The Political Discourse of Mexico's Guerrilla Forces", Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs (Summer 1999): pp. 42. [22] www.ezln.org. [23] Tom Hayden, The Zapatista Reader (New York: Nation Books, 2001), pp. 7. [24] Tom Hayden, The Zapatista Reader (New York: Nation Books, 2001), pp. 12. [25] Gloria Munoz Ramirez, The Fire and the Word: A History of the Zapatista Movement (San Francisco: City Light Publishers, 2008), pp. 133. [26] Alma Guillermoprieto, "The Unmasking", The New Yorker (March 13th, 1995), pp. 43. [27]Joel Simon, "The Marcos Mystery: A Chat with the Subcommander of Spin", Columbia Journalism Review (September 1994), pp. 11. [28] A Place Called Chiapas, British Columbia Films Commission (1998), min 18:29. [29] Naomi Klein, "Farewell to the End of History: Organization and Vision in Anti-Corporate Movements", The Socialist Register (2002), pp. 5. [30] Henry Veltmeyer, "The Dynamics of Social Change and Mexico's EZLN", Latin American Perspectives (September, 2000), pp. 92. [31] Henry Veltmeyer, "The Dynamics of Social Change and Mexico's EZLN", Latin American Perspectives (September, 2000), pp. 93. [32] Kathleen Bruhn, "Gramsci and the Palabra Verdadera: The Political Discourse of Mexico's Guerrilla Forces", Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs (Summer 1999), pp. 28. [33] Kathleen Bruhn, "Gramsci and the Palabra Verdadera: The Political Discourse of Mexico's Guerrilla Forces", Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs (Summer 1999), pp. 41. [34] Alma Guillermoprieto, "The Unmasking", The New Yorker (March 13th, 1995), pp. 42. [35] Michael McCaughan, "King of the Jungle", Found in: The Zapatista Reader (New York: Nation Books, 2001), pp. 74. [36] Ricardo Dominguez and Jill Lane, "Digital Zapatistas", The MIT Press (Summer 2003), pp. 132. [37] Ricardo Dominguez and Jill Lane, "Digital Zapatistas", The MIT Press (Summer 2003), pp. 135. [38] Nicholas Henck, Broadening the Struggle and Winning the Media War: 'Marcos Mystique,' Guerilla Chic, and Zapatista PR (Montreal: Kersplebedeb, 2002), pp. 41. [39] Nicholas Henck, Broadening the Struggle and Winning the Media War: 'Marcos Mystique,' Guerilla Chic, and Zapatista PR (Montreal: Kersplebedeb, 2002), pp. 40. [40] Alma Guillermoprieto, "The Unmasking", The New Yorker (March 13th, 1995), pp. 42. [41] Naomi Klein, "The Unknown Icon", The Guardian (March 3rd, 2001), pp. 117. [42] Naomi Klein, "The Unknown Icon", The Guardian (March 3rd, 2001), pp. 117. [43] Kristine Vanden Berghe, "Ethnocentrism, Nationalism, and Post-Nationalism in the Tales of Subcommandante Marcos", Mexican Studies/Estudios Mexicanos. (Winter 2004), pp. 123-144. [44] This general ethos must be considered amalgamated. The EZLN directives are quite clear: true democracy, indigenous rights, equal opportunity and government accountability (in my own words). However when considering the mindset, or ethos, of Zapatistas and their projected avenues of achieving these directives, the waters muddy a great deal. Many could follow the lines of "Antonio" and seek to mesh Mayan tradition and prominence with modernity while many others could adhere to Durito's more global battle with neoliberalism. This is perhaps why so many sources seek to mold the EZLN to fit their own confessed leftist ideology. [45] Subcomandante Marcos, "Ten Years Later: Durito Found Us Again", Our Word is Our Weapon (New York: Seven Stories Press, 2003), pp. 289. [46] Subcomandante Marcos, "Ten Years Later: Durito Found Us Again", Our Word is Our Weapon (New York: Seven Stories Press, 2003), pp. 289. [47] Subcomandante Marcos, "To Marian Moguel (age ten)", Our Word is Our Weapon (New York: Seven Stories Press, 2003), pp. 292. [48] Subcomandante Marcos, "The Glass to See to the Other Side", Our Word is Our Weapon (New York: Seven Stories Press, 2003), pp. 294. [49] Subcomandante Marcos, "The Glass to See to the Other Side", Our Word is Our Weapon (New York: Seven Stories Press, 2003), pp. 294-295. [50] Subcomandante Marcos, "The Glass to See to the Other Side", Our Word is Our Weapon (New York: Seven Stories Press, 2003), pp. 296. [51] Subcomandante Marcos, "The Glass to See to the Other Side", Our Word is Our Weapon (New York: Seven Stories Press, 2003), pp. 294. [52] Subcomandante Marcos, "The Story of Mirrors", Our Word is Our Weapon (New York: Seven Stories Press, 2003), pp. 379. [53] Subcomandante Marcos, "The Story of the Seven Rainbows", Our Word is Our Weapon (New York: Seven Stories Press, 2003), pp. 385. [54] Subcomandante Marcos, The Story of Colors (El Paso: Cinco Punto Press, 1999), pp. 32. [55] A near complete collection of these various works can be referenced in Our Word is Our Weapon, the preeminent compilation of Marcos works that truly shows the range of his literary resume. [56] All quoted material in above segment from Subcomandante Marcos, "The Fourth World War has Begun", Le Monde Diplomatique (September 1997), online archive. [57] Henry Veltmeyer, "The Dynamics of Social Change and Mexico's EZLN", Latin American Perspectives (September, 2000), pp. 90. [58] George A. Collier and Elizabeth Lowery Quaratiello, Basta! Land and the Zapatista Rebellion in Chiapas (Oakland: Food First Books, 1994) pp. 120. Bibliography Barmeyer, Niels. "The Guerrilla Movement as a Project: An Assessment of Community Involvement in the EZLN". Latin American Perspectives. Vol. 30, No. 1 (January 2003): pp. 122-138. Bruhn, Kathleen. "Gramsci and the Palabra Verdadera: The Political Discourse of Mexico's Guerrilla Forces". Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs. Vol. 41, No. 2 (Summer 1999): pp. 29-55. Clandestine Revolutionary Indigenous Committee-General Command of the EZLN. "First, Second, Third, Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth Declarations of the Lacandon Jungle". http://www.ezln.org. Collier, George A. and Quaratiello, Elizabeth Lowery. Basta! Land and the Zapatista Rebellion in Chiapas. Oakland. Food First Books. 1994. Dominguez, Ricardo and Lane, Jill. "Digital Zapatistas". The MIT Press. Vol. 47, No. 2 (Summer 2003): pp. 129-144. Duran de Huerta, Marta and Higgins, Nicholas. "An Interview with Subcommandante Insurgente Marcos, Spokesperson and Military Commander of the Zapatista National Liberation Army". International Affairs. Vol. 75, No. 2 (April 1999): pp. 269-279. El Kilombo Intergalactico and Subcommandante Marcos. Beyond Resistence: Everything. An Interview with Subcommanadate Marcos. Paddington (Aus). Paper Boat Press. 2008. Eichert, Benjamin and Rowley, Rick. Zapatista. A Big Noise Film. 1999. Galeano, Eduardo. "Chiapas Chronicle". La Jornada. Revista Brecha 558 (April 7th, 1996): pp. 48-50. Guillermoprieto, Alma. "The Unmasking". The New Yorker. Vol. 71 (March 13th, 1995): pp. 40-44. Hayden, Tom. The Zapatista Reader. New York. Nation Books. 2001. Henck, Nicholas. Broadening the Struggle and Winning the Media War: 'Marcos Mystique,' Guerilla Chic, and Zapatista PR. Montreal. Kersplebedeb 2002. Klein, Naomi. "Farewell to the End of History: Organization and Vision in Anti-Corporate Movements". The Socialist Register. London: Merlin Press (2002): pp. 1-14. Klein, Naomi. "The Unknown Icon". First appeared in The Guardian (March 3rd, 2001) http://www.naomiklein.org. Maddens, Bart and Vanden Berghe, Kristine. "Ethnocentrism, Nationalism, and Post-Nationalism in the Tales of Subcommandante Marcos". Mexican Studies/Estudios Mexicanos. Vol. 20, No. 1 (Winter 2004): pp. 123-144. Memorandum 0261-3050(94)00025-5. "The Reform of Article 27 and Urbanisation of the Ejido in Mexico". Bulletin of Latin American Research. Vol. 13. No. 3 (September 1994): pp. 327-335. Monsivais, Carlos. "From the Subsoil to the Mask that Reveals". Proceso.(March 3, 2001): pp. 123-132; translated in Zapatista Reader. Nash, June. "The Reassertion of Indigenous Identity: Maya Responses to State Intervention in Chiapas". Latin American Research Review. Vol. 30, No. 3 (1995): pp. 7-41. Neumann, Rachel, "We Make the Road by Walking: Lessons from the Zapatista Caravan". Monthly Review. Vol. 53, No. 2 (June 2001): www.monthlyreview.org Ramirez, Gloria Munoz. The Fire and the Word: A History of the Zapatista Movement. San Francisco. City Lights Publishers. 2008. Ramonet, Ignacio. "Marcos Marches on Mexico City". Le Monde Diplomatique. http://mondediplo.com/1997/09/marcos (April 2001). Simon, Joel. "The Marcos Mystery: A Chat with the Subcommander of Spin". Columbia Journalism Review. Vol. 33 (September 1994): pp. 9-11. Subcomandante Marcos. Our Word is Our Weapon. New York. Seven Stories Press. 2003. Subcomandante Marcos. "The Fourth World War has Begun". Le Monde Diplomatique. http://mondediplo.com/1997/09/marcos (September 1997). Subcomandante Marcos. The Story of Colors. El Paso. Cinco Punto Press. 1999. Taibo II, Paco Ignacio. "Zapatistas! The Phoenix Rises". The Nation. (March 28th, 1994): pp. 406-410. Veltmeyer, Henry. "The Dynamics of Social Change and Mexico's EZLN". Latin American Perspectives. Vol. 27, No. 5. (Sepetember 2000): pp. 88-110. Wild, Nettie (Director). A Place Called Chiapas. British Columbia Films Commission. Zeitgeist Video. 1998. Womack Jr., John. Rebellion in Chiapas: An Historical Reader. New York. The New Press. 1999. |
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