레이블이 Nova Southwestern College인 게시물을 표시합니다. 모든 게시물 표시
레이블이 Nova Southwestern College인 게시물을 표시합니다. 모든 게시물 표시

2013년 11월 27일 수요일

About 'nova southern eastern university'|Istanbul Technical University Campus / IND and Erginoğlu + Çalışlar







About 'nova southern eastern university'|Istanbul Technical University Campus / IND and Erginoğlu + Çalışlar








"He               is               [Martin               Luther]               King's               very               modern               progeny,               born               of               a               bitter               sweet               marriage               of               vision               and               necessity.

This               masked               man               is               the               descendent               of               King,               Che               Guevara,               Malcolm               X,               Emiliano               Zapata               and               all               the               other               heroes               who               preached               from               the               pulpits               only               to               be               shot               down               one               by               one,               leaving               bodies               of               followers               wandering               around               blind               and               disoriented               because               they               lost               their               heads.

In               their               place,               the               world               now               has               a               new               kind               of               hero,               one               who               listens               more               than               he               speaks,               who               preaches               in               riddles               not               in               certainties,               a               leader               who               doesn't               show               his               face,               who               thinks               his               mask               is               really               a               mirror.

And               in               [his               movement],               we               have               not               one               dream               of               a               revolution.

But               a               dreaming               revolution."[1]               Exaggerated               critiques               on               proposed               grandiose               personalities               are               not               a               unique               phenomenon.

The               above               quote,               in               its               essence,               articulates               the               search               for               a               leader,               an               icon,               a               single               personality               in               a               post-revolutionary               era.

The               poetic               cadence,               comparative               use               of               past               popular               champions,               and               near-desperate               undertone               convey               that               the               subject               is               no               run-of-the-mill               popular               usurper.

The               construction               of               the               ideas               set               forth               hint               at               exceedingly               rare               revolutionary               qualities               and               the               amalgamation               of               traits               exemplified               by               juxtaposition               eschew               the               cumbersome               rigidity               expected               in               modern               political               compositions.

Revealing               that               the               man               who               inspired               this               quote               is               the               leader               of               a               rebel               army,               further               correlations               and               disconnections               become               even               more               apparent.

What               mere               rebel               could               be               this               anticipated               while               embracing               the               virtues               that               both               hindered               and               abetted               his               revolutionary               predecessors?

The               Leftist               combination               of               personalities               invoked               mix               with               the               announced               'new'               course               of               leadership               to               captivate               the               reader.

It               is               this               difference               that               the               author,               Naomi               Klein,               seeks               to               cultivate               throughout               Leftist               movements               around               the               world.

The               structured               Left's               defeat,               demarcated               by               the               dissolution               of               the               Soviet               Union,               may               have               ushered               in               a               post-communist               era               for               many,               but               for               those               still               seeking               a               more               egalitarian               society,               adoption               of               new               strategies               remains               a               necessity.

"As               [Nobel               Laureate]               Czeslaw               Milosz               puts               it,               'the               failure               of               Marx's               dream               has               created               the               need               for               another,               not               the               rejection               of               all               dreams.'"[2]               The               luminary,               not               only               of               the               Klein               quote,               but               of               the               proposed               Leftist               evolution               is               Subcomandante               Insurgente               Marcos.
               The               primarily               indigenous               guerrilla               movement               that               introduced               Subcomandante               Marcos               to               a               global               audience               known               as               the               EZLN               (Ejercito               Zapatista               de               Liberacion               Nacional)               caught               global               attention               on               January               1st,               1994               by               militantly               taking               seven               municipalities               in               eastern               Chiapas,               Mexico.[3]               Their               general               advance               towards               indigenous               autonomy               granted               them               legitimacy               and               national               recognition               through               meetings,               treaties,               commentary,               and               eventually               state               military               intervention               by               the               Mexican               government.[4]               The               Zapatista               operation               set               itself               apart               from               the               number               of               other               revolutionary               movements               throughout               Mexico,               both               past               and               present,               by               harnessing               the               global               media               and               academic               attention               that               they               garnered               in               1994               to               further               their               endeavors.

The               EZLN               has               maintained               their               spotlight               through               global               communication               methods               that               not               only               illuminate               their               own               immediate               goals,               but               connect               their               plight               to               both               similar               movements               elsewhere               and               larger               sociological/political               commentaries               on               the               true               essence               of               neoliberal               economic               policies.
               Given               the               combination               of               local               and               global               discourses               that               the               EZLN               promotes,               a               spectrum               of               various               works               has               been               produced               on               the               Zapatistas.

Historical,               political,               sociological,               anthropological,               and               even               technological               narratives               have               investigated               the               many               facets               and               ideas               that               compose               the               Zapatistas.

Divergent               schools               of               thought               seeking               recognition               of               their               tenets               use               the               EZLN               as               a               case               study,               poststructural               historians               tell               the               tales               of               ethnic               communities               becoming               active               in               their               lives,               anthropologists               study               behavioral               alterations,               and               social               theorists               try               to               bridge               ethical               and               material               gaps               between               the               EZLN               and               larger               conceptual               ideologies.

Beyond               outside               production               of               what               the               EZLN               has               come               to               mean               to               both               Mexico               and               the               world,               the               Zapatistas               themselves               have               also               produced               their               own               image               to               be               imprinted               in               Chiapas,               in               Mexico,               and               on               the               world.

The               primary               architect               behind               this               agency               is               Marcos.
               The               fall               of               the               Berlin               Wall               signaled               the               end               of               communism               and               the               dismantling               of               an               international               structure               for               the               anti-capitalist               Left.

I               argue               that               the               remnants               of               this               Left               coalesced               around               the               anti-globalization,               anti-neoliberal               agenda               in               the               post-communist               era.

Subcomandante               Marcos               and               the               Zapatistas               of               Mexico               came               to               represent               the               first,               and               perhaps,               most               important               symbols               of               this               new               resistance.

Assigning               Marcos               this               role               was               the               objective               of               both               journalistic               and               academic               authors'               fascination               with               the               masked               harbinger               of               equality;               coupled               with               Marcos'               own               distinguished               works,               a               symbolic               caricature               developed               to               which               leftists               everywhere               could               attach               their               vision.

As               the               most               visible               member               and               assumed               leader               of               the               EZLN,               he               facilitated               a               revitalization               of               revolutionary               movement.

The               Subcomandante's               actions               and               written               works               spoke               to               the               greater               interest               of               social               progress               while               positioning               him               as               a               champion               against               the               offensive               of               neoliberal               capitalism.

From               a               historiographical               standpoint,               I               will               examine               the               dialogue               surrounding               the               evolution               of               both               a               general               political               ideology               and               the               methodology               of               refreshing               its               vehicles               of               transmission               via               Marcos.

The               assumption               that               Western               ways               of               thinking,               acting,               and               living               proved               to               be               the               'right'               way               through               a               perceived               Cold               War               victory               are               purely               conjecture               in               certain               places               and               outright               fallacious               in               many               others.

Examination               of               Marcos               as               an               architect               for               a               new               battle               against               capitalism               and               the               marginalization               it               produces               provides               a               continuation               to               what               was               thought               to               be               a               dead               subject.

In               many               ways,               the               Cold               War               is               not               over,               or               perhaps               it               too,               has               evolved               to               something               similar,               yet               different.

Marcos               himself               tags               this               new               or               continuing               battle               the               "Fourth               World               War:               The               War               Against               Oblivion."
               Contextualizing               Marcos               within               Chiapas               and               the               Historical               Rise               of               the               EZLN
               Subcomandante               Marcos,               allegedly               a               former               professor               of               communications               at               the               Metropolitan               Autonomous               University               (Mexico               City)               by               the               name               of               Raphael               Sebastian               Guillen               Vicente,               is               the               self-proclaimed               "translator"               for               the               EZLN.[5]               Marcos               arrived               in               Chiapas               in               1983               and               though               his               journey               to,               and               early               exploits               in               Chiapas               have               been               vaguely               chronicled,               most               sources               (including               Marcos)               confirm               his               large               part               in               the               formation               of               the               EZLN               on               November               17th,               1983.[6]               Marcos               chose               a               destination               in               Chiapas               that               had               always               been               on               the               periphery               of               the               general               Mexican               ethos.

While               separate               debates               question               the               true               institution               of               the               Mexican               Revolution               and               the               Constitution               it               bore               (1917)               throughout               the               country,               Chiapas               remained               the               penultimate               example               of               a               lingering               colonial               mentality.

The               PRI               (Institutional               Revolutionary               Party)               in               Chiapas               simply               carried               on               the               legacy               left               by               the               Spanish               colonizers,               the               ladino               caciques               and               foreign               maquiladoras               of               the               19th               century,               and               the               Porfiristas.[7]               Even               under               populist               and               progressive               national               movements               such               as               the               presidency               of               Lazaro               Cardenas               (1934-1940),               the               Revolution               and               its               promises               failed               to               greatly               alter               Chiapas.

Largely               figuring               into               the               equation               that               assigned               the               state               its               social               stagnation               was               the               large               indigenous               population.

Blatant               racism               against               these               varying               members               of               the               larger               Mayan               family               sought               to               "make               the               indigenous               return               to               the               oblivion               where               they               have               been               placed               for               five               centuries."[8]               These               Tzeltals,               Tzotzils,               Zoques,               and               Chols               were               placed               as               subordinate               to               both               Spanish-ancestry               Mexicans               (mestizo,               ladino)               and               foreigners.

The               list               of               historic               crime               and               corruption               committed               against               indigenous               Chiapatecans               is               far               too               deep               to               engage               with               here,               but               it               must               be               understood               that               by               the               time               of               Marcos'               arrival,               "the               people               of               the               color               of               the               earth"               endured               nearly               five               hundred               years               of               tyranny.[9]
               Chiapas               embodied               the               ideal               situation               for               an               uprising,               however,               it               must               be               noted               that               the               revolutionaries               who               came               from               the               city               in               the               early               1980s               were               not               the               sole               founders               of               indigenous               backlash               against               the               state               apparatus.

Catholic               prelate               Samuel               Ruiz               entered               the               situation               in               Chiapas               (1959)               as               the               new               Bishop               at               San               Cristobal               de               las               Casas.

Like               many               men               of               God               before               him,               Ruiz               came               by               ecclesiastical               order               to               both               help               and               proselytize               to               the               indigenous.

However,               he               was               unaware               that               the               crippling               situation               of               the               poor               in               Chiapas               changed               men;               that               through               his               experiences               there               he               would               become               an               outright               proponent               and               example               of               liberation               theology               at               work.

Rather               fortuitously,               for               Ruiz,               the               indigenous,               and               later,               Marcos,               "I               [he]               came               to               San               Cristobal               to               convert               the               poor               but               they               ended               up               converting               me."[10]               Ruiz'               immersion               into               the               world               of               Mayan               and               Mexican               tradition               as               well               as               engaging               extreme               oppression               mixed               with               traditional               Catholic               sentiments               to               foment               a               unique               concoction               of               dissent               in               Chiapas.

Indigenous               influence               became               apparent               as               early               as               1974               when               Ruiz               helped               organize               the               First               Indian               Congress               in               San               Cristobal               commemorating               the               birthday               of               the               16th               century               Indian-rights               activist               Fray               Bartolome               de               las               Casas               (to               which               San               Cristobal               de               las               Casas               owes               its               name).

A               Tzeltal               catechist               colors               the               combination               of               ethics               at               work               in               the               native               mind               as               he               spoke               at               the               Congress:
               "God               wants               us               to               get               out               to               freedom               like               the               ancient               Jewish               people…in               the               lands               of               another               people,               called               Egypt,               they               worked               as               slaves,               suffering               many               wants.

Then               God               spoke               in               the               heart               of               one               of               their               principales               …'I               have               come               down               to               liberate               you               from               your               sufferings,               and               I               am               going               to               bring               you               to               another               better               land'…               [But]               they               had               to               get               out               and               fight               to               gain               their               freedom…our               ancestors               too               had               to               unite               and               struggle               to               win               their               lands…We               have               to               gather               strength               in               our               hearts,               and               struggle               and               suffer               much               still.

We               have               to               struggle               against               poverty,               hunger,               and               injustice."[11]
               The               story               used               by               the               speaker               is               clearly               of               a               biblical               nature               echoing               the               Catholic               influence.

In               addition,               announcement               of               the               plight               of               his               peers               and               a               call               to               fight               connote               both               an               indigenous               and               rebellious               agenda.

Ruiz               christened               this               ethos               the               tomar               conciencia               in               which               traditional               (both               indigenous               and               Catholic)               mind-sets               are               amalgamated               with               rebellious               thoughts               and               a               native,               recently               active,               voice.

In               Ruiz               own               words:               "to               take               cognizance,               to               question               received               faith,               wisdom,               and               conventions,               to               become               conscious               in               a               new               frame               of               mind               that               people,               things,               qualities,               conditions,               may               not               be               as               they               had               seemed               or               been               supposed               to               be,               to               try               to               discover,               recognize,               know               them               as               they               truly               are,               and               in               this               knowledge               to               accept               explicitly               the               obligations               of               conscience               to               do               good."[12]
               This               potentially               explosive               arena               that               was               Chiapas               by               the               time               Marcos               and               his               cohorts               made               their               pilgrimage               was               a               primary               draw               for               the               revolutionaries.

Yet,               it               also               verifies               that               Marcos               merely               fanned               the               fire               in               Chiapas;               rebellious               ideals               had               already               manifested               and               the               indigenous               were               not               merely               passive               sheep               molded               by               any               leftist-revolutionary               to               stumble               upon               the               scene.

As               exemplified               by               both               Ruiz'               guidance               and               a               self-generated               active               voice               by               native               Chiapatecans,               the               poorest               Mexican               state               only               needed               a               match               to               ignite.[13]               Marcos'               small               party               lived               crudely               in               the               jungles               of               Chiapas               those               first               couple               of               years               where               contacts               were               made               both               with               indigenous               peoples               and               an               old               revolutionary               cell               of               the               Fuerzas               de               Liberacion               Nacional               (FLN).

The               contact               and               eventual               immersion               into               indigenous               society               potentially               altered               his               materialist-Marxist-Maoist               way               of               thinking:               "[He]               came               from               elsewhere.

He               spoke               to               them;               they               did               not               understand.

Then               he               entered               the               mist,               he               learned               to               listen               and               was               able               to               speak.

Now               he               speaks               from               them;               His               is               the               voice               of               voices."[14]               And               though               the               jungle               communities               affected               him               greatly,               the               FLN               provided               a               revolutionary               apparatus               that               harbored               remaining               structural               ties.

These               early               forays               into               the               traditional               native               ethos               while               maintaining               ties               to               Western               schools               of               thought               and               militant               movements               provided               the               basis               for               the               unusual               discourse               that               would               later               garner               him               global-leftist               acclaim.

Marcos'               notoriety               among               the               FLN               grew,               which               also               connected               him               to               other               notable               organizations               and               movements               such               as               the               Union               of               Unions               and               the               Emiliano               Zapata               Peasant               Organization.

The               intellectual               seeds               he               planted               throughout               the               Lacandon               communities               also               solidified               support               among               nonaligned               indigenous               chasing               a               different               kind               of               movement.

In               1984-85,               Marcos               was               promoted               to               subcomandante               of               the               newly               formed               military               wing               of               the               FLN,               the               EZLN.
               Growing               unrest               not               only               in               Chiapas,               but               in               Mexico               as               a               whole               had               not               gone               without               government               notice.

Both               the               federal               and               state               governments               under               PRI               control               were               acclimated               to               dealing               with               dissent               as               unrest               had               been               constant               since               the               Revolution.

1988               marked               the               beginning               of               Carlos               Salinas               de               Gortari's               'Solidarity'               plan               in               which               the               executive               sought               to               combat               rebellion               and               weaken               revolutionary               movements               through               appeasement.

Cadres               were               sent               to               Chiapas               (and               elsewhere)               in               essence,               to               buy               off               leaders               as               well               as               workers,               farmers,               and               peasants.

'Solidarity'               politically               articulated               a               new               outlook               on               the               downtrodden               and               a               fresh               set               of               methods               to               bridge               the               widening               socio-economic               chasm               between               Mexico's               elite               and               destitute.

Like               most               promises               offered               by               past               Mexican               leaders,               'Solidarity'               never               really               came               to               Chiapas               as               most               funds               were               simply               absorbed               by               state               and               local               PRI               leaders.

While               results               in               other               states               are               up               for               debate,               the               result               in               Chiapas               was               a               perpetuation               of               oppression               via               'Solidarity'               funds               being               used               to               amplify               the               power               of               the               few.

Some               funds               and               programs               made               it               to               the               rebellious               as               bribes               from               local               and               federal               cadres               whose               marginalizing               strategy               succeeded               in               the               eventual               dissemination               of               the               FLN.

Many               supporters               were               either               paid               off               or               offered               whatever               specific               necessity               they               lacked               (land,               work,               etc.).

In               that               sense,               simple               material               gain               outweighed               ethics               for               many               disenfranchised               Chiapatecans
               Even               with               the               eventual               breakup               of               the               complex               relationship               between               the               FLN,               the               Union               of               Unions,               and               Ruiz'               diocese,               many               dissatisfied               indigenous               remained               organized.

Few               government               funds,               corrupt               or               not,               found               their               way               into               the               hands               of               the               various               Mayan               peoples.

Salinas               further               suppressed               the               indigenous               when               he               implemented               a               'dirty               war'               against               remaining               outposts               of               native               organization;               not               unlike               numerous               neoliberal               imperialists               before               him.

Kidnappings,               individual               murders,               and               economic               support               for               paramilitary               groups               with               little               observance               of               law               became               common               place.[15]               Bishop               Samuel               Ruiz               remained               an               influential               actor               in               the               region               and               was               able               to               maintain               ties               to               indigenous               rights               movements               throughout               Chiapas               but               the               'dirty               war'               alongside               waning               support               from               a               now-government               appointed               national               diocese               compromised               much               control               he               had               over               the               situation.

Regardless,               Marcos               recognized               Ruiz'               efforts               as               a               "constant               menace               to               [Chiapas               Governor]               Gonzalez               Garrido's               reorganizing               projects"               and               credited               him               as               the               epitome               of               "stubbornness               of               religious               and               secular               figures               who               support               and               preach               Catholicism's               option               for               the               poor."[16]
               These               two               advocates               for               indigenous               rights               could               not               be               fundamentally               further               apart               in               methodologies               to               achieve               the               goal               of               equality.

Marcos               sought               a               military               solution               and               Ruiz'               anti-militant               response               fomented               a               grating               relationship               between               the               two               that               would               carryon               throughout               the               1990s               as               both               sought               divergent               means               to               similar               ends.

Ruiz               continued               to               search               for               a               peaceful               solution               within               the               realms               of               Mexican               legality.

Marcos,               meanwhile,               sought               direct               confrontation               by               delegitimizing               the               state               and               federal               governments               through               formation               of               the               Clandestine               Revolutionary               Indian               Committee               (CCRI)               that               united               former               pro-FLN               communities               of               Tzeltal,               Chol,               Zoque,               Tzotzil               and               Tojolobal.

The               new               political               apparatus               established               complete               indigenous               control               over               most               aspects               of               everyday               life               for               the               many               that               remained               dissident               and               concentrated               both               internal               and               external               political               decisions               into               the               hands               of               traditionally               and               democratically               selected               members               of               the               Lacandon               communities.

Marcos               consolidated               military               control               over               the               still-standing               EZLN               by               cutting               all               ties               with               the               few               remaining               FLN               commanders.

However,               the               relationship               initiated               between               the               EZLN               and               the               CCRI               laid               a               foundation               for               indigenous               group               leadership               to               which               he               would               have               to               answer.

This               crucial               aspect               of               granting               the               indigenous               true               authority               whilst               remaining               a               mere               'subcomandante'               of               the               military               wing               of               the               developing               autonomous               society               solidified               the               authenticity               of               Marcos'               ambitions               for               complete               equality.
               Tensions               in               Chiapas               finally               reached               a               boiling               point               when               President               Salinas               introduced               reforms               of               Article               27               to               the               Mexican               Constitution               on               November               7th,               1991.

The               amendments               meant               to               demonstrate               to               the               United               States,               Mexico's               commitment               to               the               North               American               Free               Trade               Agreement.

These               reforms               were               passed               the               next               year               and               "broke               quite               dramatically               with               the               taboo-in               political               rhetoric               at               least-of               no               longer               protecting               the               institution               of               the               ejido               enshrined               in               the               1915               Constitution."[17]               The               dissolution               of               the               ejido,               essentially               communal               land,               undermined               traditional               modes               of               production               tied               to               closely               knit               communities               and               guaranteed               the               opening               of               the               private               land               market.

In               Mexico,               this               meant               that               the               only               people               that               would               have               land               to               'work'               were               the               ones               capable               of               buying               it:               the               wealthy               and               foreigners.

The               ejido               system               was               far               from               perfect,               particularly               in               Chiapas,               as               rampant               corruption               marginalized               most               ejidatarios,               but               it               minimally               provided               enough               for               subsistence               in               most               areas.

Killing               the               ejido               doomed               millions               of               poor               Mexicans               to               either               choose               to               starve,               or               find               even               worse               labor               situations.

For               the               indigenous               of               the               Selva               Lacondona,               it               assured               them               that               their               land               would               not               remain               theirs               for               very               long.

In               this               context,               the               official               break               in               directive               between               Ruiz               and               his               peaceful               adherents               and               the               EZLN               culminated               when               the               CCRI               decided               to               support               Marcos'               military               solution               of               open               revolt.
               Late               in               1993,               with               Marcos'               suggestion,               it               was               decided               that               in               the               early               hours               of               January               1st,               1994,               the               EZLN               would               attack               five               to               seven               municipalities               around               eastern               Chiapas.

The               date               chosen               not               only               offered               the               potential               least               resistance               due               to               New               Year's               festivities,               but               hinted               at               the               more               global               dialectic               Marcos               infused               into               the               EZLN.

That               day,               the               North               American               Free               Trade               Agreement               (NAFTA)               became               official               between               the               United               States,               Canada,               and               Mexico.

The               NAFTA               preview               outlined               in               Salinas'               reforms               already               incensed               the               CCRI               and               EZLN               as               outlined               by               EZLN               National               Coordinator's               assessment               below:
               "They               wanted               to               adapt               the               country               to               the               needs               of               the               international               market,               but               all               they               achieved               was               more               poverty               and               misery.

Why?

Because               the               majority               were               not               taken               into               account               by               NAFTA.

The               only               thing               that               was               taken               into               account               were               the               large               corporations               that               can               buy               and               sell.

Others,               like               the               indigenous               of               Chiapas               are               leftover.

They               are               so               poor,               they're               not               even               a               market."[18]
               The               detrimental               effects               of               land               loss               through               privatization,               foreign               invitation               to               usurp               Chiapas'               rich               natural               resources,               infusion               of               cheap               imported               crops,               and               further               alienation               of               traditional               culture               marked               the               now               official               economic               doctrine               potentially               genocidal               for               the               indigenous.

Yet,               attacking               on               'NAFTA               Day',               suggested               something               beyond               localized               protest               for               indigenous               conservation,               it               symbolized               a               last               stand               against               the               forces               of               neoliberalism               utterly               represented               by               the               adoption               of               NAFTA.
               The               military               initiative               that               launched               the               EZLN               and               Subcomandante               Marcos               into               the               global               spotlight               has               been               documented               thoroughly               by               both               Zapatista               authors               and               interested               academics.[19]               Battles,               or               in               some               cases,               non-battles               throughout               Chiapas               in               places               such               as               San               Cristobal               de               las               Casas,               Altamirano,               or               Ocosingo-where               the               most               blood               was               shed-are               well               chronicled.

In               this               sense,               further               repetition               of               these               stories               is               unnecessary               as               what               transpired               did               not               form,               but               introduce               Marcos               to               the               world;               his               persona               forged               through               the               basic               timeline,               peoples,               and               institutions               probably               too               briefly               alluded               to               prior.

The               symbolic               caricature               that               global               leftist               would               pin               their               hopes               on.

His               ingredients               include               a               strong               academic               background               as               both               a               student               and               professor               (allegedly)               whose               despondency               with               the               status               quo               motivated               an               egress               from               civil               society;               the               journey,               both               physical               and               mental               to               Chiapas               undoubtedly               shaped               his               militancy.

Upon               arrival,               the               years               of               living               meekly               and               simply               as               an               Indian               and               gradual               immersion               into               indigenous               traditionalism               reshaped,               if               not               softened               his               structured               academic               ties.

"There               was               a               considerable               amount               of               clashing               while               we               made               the               adjustment               between               our               orthodox               way               of               seeing               the               world               in               terms               of               bourgeois               and               proletarians               to               the               community's               worldview."[20]               Like               Ruiz,               experiencing               the               true               plight               of               these               people               alongside               their               more               simple,               yet               spiritual               presence               changed               him               further.

It               angered               him               and               invigorated               his               revolutionary               essence.

His               unique               compilation               of               political,               military,               ethnological,               and               social               knowledge               garnered               him               undesired               clout.

However,               in               the               interest               of               the               people               who               saved               him               and               his               own               necessity               to               retard               the               charge               of               capitalist               'progress',               he               seized               the               moment.
               Marcos               became               not               only               the               face               of               the               EZLN,               but               the               framer               of               modern               Zapatismo;               the               entwinement               of               both               local               and               global               leftist               ideology               that               meshes               the               revered               rhetoric               of               Mexican               Revolutionary               hero               Emiliano               Zapata               and               his               fight               for               social               justice,               indigenous               Maya               traditionalism,               Catholic               liberation               theology               and               thinly-veiled,               if               not               loose,               ties               to               structured               Marxist,               Maoist,               and               Gramscian               movement.

The               nobility               of               Marcos'               'local'               discourse               provided               the               vehicle               for               larger               engagements               with               the               historical               marginalization               agent               of               native               peoples:               Western               imperial               incursion.

Primary               among               the               facets               of               Western               ideas               infused               globally               since               the               colonial               era               is               the               capitalist               mindset.

For               Marcos               and               the               EZLN,               the               postmodern               form               of               capitalism-neoliberalism               and               globalization-informed               their               defiance,               as               already               noted.

Their               battle               garnered               enthusiasm               among               global               leftists               for               Marcos               as               the               voice               for               a               neoteric               resistance.

His               legend               among               them               confirmed               by               the               great               number               of               works               produced               on               the               humble               "poet               guerrilla."[21]               International               tribute               through               prose               of               Marcos               surpasses               all               but               the               most               captivating               revolutionaries               of               yore.

British,               French,               Spanish,               Canadian               as               well               as               countless               Latin               American               writers'               high               regard               for               Marcos               motivated               what               otherwise               would               be               remote               and               disinterested               constituents               to               reassess               the               fruits               of               'progress'.

Further,               Marcos               himself               has               produced               as               many               as               two               hundred               essays               and               published               twenty-one               books               concerning               subjects               as               diverse               as               political               ideology,               indigenous               rights,               and               children's               literature.[22]
               Outside               Construction               of               a               Revolutionary               Icon
               In               the               post-communist               era,               remnants               of               the               structured               Left               remained               alive               through               Marcos               and               the               Zapatistas.

At               an               incredibly               weak               point               for               a               fractured               Left,               a               definitive               and               structured               ideology               (communism,               socialism)               tended               to               alienate               people,               yet               the               flexibility               of               the               EZLN's               pathos               and               the               perceived               purity               of               their               movement               subordinated               traditional               leftist               ideals.

This               pathos               was               colored               for               the               global               audience               "due               mainly               to               Marcos"               as               he               etched               out               a               "diary,               a               poetry,               an               intellectual               account,               and               an               invaluable               window               into               a               movement               that               ha[d]               an               awareness               of               its               own               novelty."[23]               The               progress               of               neoliberalism               compromised               the               influence               of               men               like               Fidel               Castro,               Ho               Chi               Minh,               Vladimir               Lenin,               et               al.

and               the               dialectics               they               espoused               were               feared               by               moderate               populations.

Exemplifying               this               fear               and               its               ruthless               solutions               for               defiance               towards               globalization               was               a               Chase               Manhattan               Bank               report               demanding               the               Mexican               Government               to               "eliminate               the               Zapatistas."[24]
               In               response               to               an               apprehensive               modern               populace               and               the               neoliberal               power               brokers               who               could               utilize               proven               Cold               War-style               fear-mongering               tactics,               the               global               Left               sought               to               deemphasize               the               iconic               revolutionary               of               yore               while               promoting               an               infinitely               more               moldable               one.

Further               aid               to               the               cause               of               creating               a               symbolic               personality               for               the               global               Left               manifested               in               the               simple               fact               that               Marcos               and               the               EZLN               never               actually               seized               power.

Government               control               never               entered               their               minds               as               the               Zapatistas               identified               themselves               as               "a               new               political               force               whose               members               do               not               hold               or               aspire               to               hold               public               office               or               government               posts               at               any               level…a               political               force               that               does               not               seek               to               take               power."[25]               By               not               taking               or               seeking               rule,               Marcos               was               immune               to               the               prodigious               complications               of               earlier               Leftist               icons:               their               highly               disputable               and               perhaps,               tarnishing               tenures               of               leadership.

Not               unlike               the               most               popular               of               revolutionary               personas,               Ernesto               "Che"               Guevara,               Marcos'               impassivity               towards               power               fueled               his               symbolism.

Even               when               Che's               original               revolution               did               succeed               in               Cuba,               he               left               state-building               to               Castro               and               after               a               short               period               working               within               the               government,               opted               to               take               leave               and               propagate               revolutions               in               other               indentured               corners               of               the               world.

This               concept               was               not               lost               upon               the               authors               of               Marcos'               ascendance               as               Che's               name               is               echoed               in               over               half               of               the               works               cited               for               this               paper.
               Manufacture               of               Marcos               as               a               revolutionary               icon               splintered               equally               between               his               flirtations               with               media               and               fame,               reciprocal               praise               from               the               media               in               addition               to               pundits               and               academics,               and               his               own               published               works               which               invoked               such               presence               that               Mexican               journalist               Alma               Guillermoprieto               claimed               he               practically               fought               the               Zapatista               war               singlehandedly.[26]               "Every               positive               story               written               about               Marcos               raise[d]               the               political               cost               of               a               Mexican               army               assault               on               the               ragtag               rebels…Good               press-in               Mexico               and               in               the               U.S.-[was]               the               Zapatistas               strongest               defense."[27]               These               interloper               and               insider               produced               assignments               on               Marcos               revealed               his               revolutionary               character               and               helped               the               cause               of               the               Zapatistas.

The               product               of               this               mode               of               writing               was               a               man               who               stood               for               freedom,               democracy,               indigenous               rights,               and               global               equality;               he               contested               the               detrimental               effects               of               neoliberal               capitalist               progress,               and               broke               with               conventional               guerrilla               militancy               using               the               media               as               his               "long-range               missile."[28]               Even               the               balaclava               that               he               still               has               yet               to               remove               in               public               represented               something               newer               and               greater               in               revolutionary               prose.

Intrigued               writers               considered               that:
               "Marcos,               the               quintessential               anti-leader,               insists               that               his               black               mask               is               a               mirror,               so               that               Marcos               is               gay               in               San               Francisco,               black               in               South               Africa,               an               Asian               in               Europe,               a               Chicano               in               San               Ysidro,               an               anarchist               in               Spain,               a               Palestinian               in               Israel,               a               Mayan               Indian               in               the               streets               of               San               Cristobal,               a               Jew               in               Germany,               a               Gypsy               in               Poland,               a               Mohawk               in               Quebec,               a               pacifist               in               Bosnia,               a               single               woman               on               the               Metro               at               ten               p.m.,               a               peasant               without               land,               a               gang               member               in               the               slums,               an               unemployed               worker,               an               unhappy               student               and,               of               course,               a               Zapatista               in               the               mountains.

In               other               words,               he               is               simply               us:               we               are               the               leader               we've               been               looking               for."[29]
               The               ethos               many               leftist               authors               of               varying               works               are               enslaved               by               inherently               places               their               values               and               judgments               into               a               certain               context.

This               context,               a               Marxist,               Gramscian,               poststructural,               or               any               other               number               of               leftist               methodological               approaches,               either               validates               or               rejects               the               subject               of               analysis               based               primarily               on               how               relatable               it               is               to               their               professed               discourse.

In               the               case               of               Marcos,               his               revolutionary,               but               ill-defined               leftist               ideology               facilitated               the               adulation               of               very               diverse               authors.

By               breaking               with               not               only               guerrilla               norms               in               tactics,               but               the               structured               ties               of               regimented               schools               of               thought,               he               garnered               an               anomalous               form               of               revolutionary               quality               in               which               even               his               mask               had               different               meanings.

From               austere,               disciplined               perspectives               loyal               to               certain               methodologies,               Marcos               was               moldable.

Both               his               qualities               and               the               directives               of               the               EZLN               could               be               made               to               fit               into               any               number               of               ideological               dialectics.
               Henry               Veltmeyer,               a               highly               regarded               sociologist               at               St.

Mary's               University               (Nova               Scotia),               provides               a               succinct               example               by               contextualizing               Marcos               through               a               blatantly               Marxist               methodological               lens.

Veltmeyer's               engagement               with               Marcos'               unique               and               ultimately               moldable               language               surfaces               when               he               analyzes               the               Subcomandante's               description               of               Chiapas               as               a               "marginal               zone"               (un               bolsillo               de               olvido).[30]               Marcos               insinuated               that               Chiapas               is               on               the               outskirts               of               the               Mexican               infrastructural               and               social               umbrella               and               Veltmeyer               duly               notes               that               in               Marxist               terms,               he               meant               that               Chiapas               and               its               citizens               are               clearly               considered               to               be               of               a               decumbent               class.

Further               shaping               of               Marcos               into               Marxist               ideals               appears               with               the               introduction               of               Marxist               language               within               the               Subcomandante's               thoughts:               "Marcos               speaks               poetically               of               the               'bloody               jaws'               of               the               'wild               beast'               (imperialism)               whose               teeth               have               sunk               deeply               into               the               throat               of               southeastern               Mexico,               drawing               out               large               pools               of               blood:               tribute               in               the               form               of               'petroleum,               electrical               energy,               cattle,               money,               coffee,               banana,               honey,               [and]               corn.'"[31]               The               sentence               structure               is               composed               so               that               it               is               difficult               to               break               the               author's               words               (imperialism,               tribute)               from               Marcos'.

Beyond               a               Marxist               interpretation               of               Marcos'               words,               Veltmeyer               argues               that               structured               class-based               analyses               are               not               only               necessary               to               provide               a               complete               voice               for               the               indigenous               of               Chiapas,               but               that               hard               evidence               indicates               that               EZLN               links               to               worker,               teacher,               and               peasant               movements               solidify               a               goal               that               extends               beyond               indigenous               autonomy.
               While               Veltmeyer'               tried               to               fit               the               EZLN               and               Marcos               into               a               Marxist               sphere               of               thought,               Kathleen               Bruhn               used               similar               corollaries               upholding               the               less               structured               sub-school               of               Marxism               as               professed               by               Antonio               Gramsci.

She               analyzes               the               linguistic               characteristics               set               forth               by               the               EZLN               and               how               they               are               articulated               by               Marcos               as               "most               documents               are               the               intellectual               product               of               a               single               author,               Subcomandante               Marcos,               the               EZLN's               chief               spokesman,               chief               military               strategist,               and               propagandist."[32]               By               making               this               immediate               assertion,               she               attributes               the               Gramscian               language               indicative               of               the               EZLN               to               Marcos;               in               turn,               her               assessment               merits               Marcos               a               more               philosophical               appeal.

Application               of               an               earlier               alluded               to               and               'less               rigid'               discourse               shapes               the               cognitive               gap               between               the               EZLN's               relative               success               in               comparison               to               other               revolutionary               movements               in               Mexico.

Bruhn               points               to               the               varied               interpretations               of               revolutionary               cause               that               may               be               assumed               when               reading               Marcos:
               "The               EZLN               connects               with               a               tradition               of               struggle,               with               a               cultural               tradition               and               produces               this               language               that               succeeds               in               penetrating               strata               of               society               through               symbols.

It               touches               very               top               intellectuals               or               very               poor               simple               people…Let               us               say               that               Zapatismo               knocks               at               a               door,               the               door               of               political               language;               it               finds               it               open…and               enters."[33]
               Marcos,               himself,               announces               the               notion               that               the               Zapatistas               confront               language               directly;               their               ideology               enters               into               political               and               traditional               language               and               alters               them.

For               advocates               of               adaptable               responses               of               dissent,               this               quote               provides               life;               it               affirms               that               Marcos               as               the               "spokesperson"               deliberately               calls               into               question               the               rigidity               of               other               discourses               and               movements               through               linguistics.

Gramsci's               renowned               interpretation               of               Marxist               ideals               offers               a               similar               rejection               of               such               structure               while               maintaining               a               flexibility               that               is               inherently               moldable.
               While               Marcos'               language               bolstered               more               academic               leftist               philosophies               like               that               of               Bruhn               and               Veltmeyer,               his               'way               with               words'               also               abetted               his               lionization               among               the               media.

"Marcos's               preoccupation               with               symbolic               language               is               certainly               worthy               of               a               student               of               Althusser…and               [his]               seductive               knack               has               allowed               him               to               become               a               faceless               stand-in               for               all               oppressed,               an               anonymous               vessel               for               all               fantasies               from               the               sexual               to               the               bellicose,               a               star."[34]               His               popularity               grew               such               that               certain               authors               focused               on               Marcos               solely               without               even               eluding               to               the               Zapatista               cause.

He               was               dubbed               "King               of               the               Jungle"               in               one               such               article               that               compared               Zapatista               headquarters               to               Studio               54.

The               writer,               Michael               McCaughan,               identified               a               number               of               famous               Marcos               fans               who               had               been               known               to               either               visit               or               support               the               Zapatistas               such               as               Danielle               Mitterrand,               Bianca               Jagger,               Octavio               Paz,               and               Regis               Debray               who               reportedly               ranked               Marcos               the               greatest               living               writer               in               Latin               America.[35]               Even               well-known               personalities               from               the               U.S.

sought               audience               with               the               Subcomandante               which               tinged               on               ironic.

Even               though               most               were               associated               with               a               fringe               left,               Marcos               clearly               identified               the               U.S.

government               and               corporations               as               his               larger               nemesis.

The               'American               way               of               life'               embodied               the               great               perpetrator               and/or               instigator               of               indigenous               genocide               so               to               speak-the               entity               really               pulling               the               strings               of               a               Mexican               puppet               executive.

Regardless,               people               like               Oliver               Stone,               Jane               Fonda,               and               Tom               Hayden               made               the               pilgrimage               to               Chiapas.

The               widely               popular               and               very               political               California-based               rock               group               Rage               Against               the               Machine               also               made               it               a               point               to               bring               awareness               to               the               plight               of               Chiapas.

The               lead               singer               Zack               De               La               Rocha               donned               a               shirt               with               the               single               red               star               of               the               EZLN               in               all               public               appearances               and               the               hit               song               "People               of               the               Sun"               was               written               to               pay               tribute               to               the               Zapatistas.

De               La               Rocha               and               numerous               other               American               musicians               also               made               the               pilgrimage               to               meet               Marcos               at               various               global               gatherings               such               as               the               1996               Encuentro               in               La               Realidad,               Chiapas.
               The               well-known               visual               arts               professor               and               electronic               activist               Ricardo               Dominguez               enthusiastically               augmented               this               star               power               by               mirroring               the               guerilla's               persona               in               dramatic               productions.

Dominguez,               an               American,               had               taken               up               dressing               and               performing               like               the               Subcomandante               in               the               U.S.,               Europe,               and               particularly               on-line.

Dominguez'               dual-authored               article               with               Jill               Lane               describing               his               travelling               and               web-based               artistic               renditions               of               the               EZLN               titled               "Digital               Zapatistas"               also               served               as               a               political               announcement               of               sorts.

His               production               company,               Electronic               Disturbance               Theater               (EDT)               established               in               1994,               was               actively               engaged               in               a               "radical               shift               from               the               use               of               the               internet               for               communication               and               documentation               to               its               use               as               a               space               for               nonviolent,               direct               action."               He               further               outlines               the               main               premise               of               the               EDT               as               a               response               to               a               "call               by               the               communities               in               Chiapas,               Mexico,               to               bear               witness               to               the               global               condition               of               neoliberalism."[36]               Dominguez               explained               that               the               Subcomandante's               theatric               lead               role               in               global               resistance               motivated               this               technological-watershed               endeavor:               he               was               "the               latest               popular               hero               in               a               tradition               of               activists"               and               could               be               compared               to               "Zapata               [himself],               Sandino,               Che,               and               Arafat."[37]               As               the               "subcomandante               of               performance",               Dominguez'               outwardly               imaginative               shows               of               revolutionary               qualities               sweetened               the               prominence               of               Marcos               and               expedited               foreign               adulation               for               the               EZLN.

Dominguez               understood               that               his               portrayal               of               Marcos               through               live               and               electronic               media               spread               Zapatismo,               however,               no               mention               was               made               of               how               his               role               likely               fueled               a               growing               cult               of               personality.

Lane's               very               tedious               project               in               Dominguez'               article               was               to               dissect               the               unquantifiable               product               of               the               Zapatista               siege               upon               the               information               age,               in               which               Zapatistas,               by               virtue               of               the               internet,               were               sprouting               up               everywhere.

The               face               of               Marcos               behind               the               balaclava               could               be               seen               just               as               readily               in               California               as               in               Chiapas.

In               fact,               the               article               cites               twenty-eight               Zapatista-based               or               sympathetic               websites               and               articles               attributed,               at               least,               partially               to               "Digital               Zapatistas"               and               the               'fake'               Marcos.

Such               publicity               for               a               mere               impersonator               surely               verifies               the               gravitational               pull               of               the               genuine               Marcos.
               Complete               investigation               into               the               role               Marcos               had               filled               as               revolutionary               media               darling               gained               serious               traction               as               a               subject               in               and               of               itself.

The               short               booklet,               Broadening               the               Struggle               and               Winning               the               Media               War               by               Nicholas               Henck,               places               due               emphasis               on               the               history               of               Zapatista               public               relations.

Henck               dedicates               forty               pages               to               considering               how               the               Zapatistas,               through               Marcos,               took               advantage               of               all               modes               of               communication               to               garner               international               support.

His               work               personifies               a               grounded,               scientific               dive               into               the               success               that               Marcos               had               in               wrestling               the               media               tiger,               an               entity               that               "even               if               it               cannot               be               wholly               tamed,               can               at               least               be               ridden,               and               sometimes               even               in               the               direction               one               wants."[38]               Event-based               prose               assumed               results               echoing               an               argument               that               transforms               the               piece               into               a               treatise               for               other               revolutionaries               to               emulate:
               "Their               struggle               should               act               as               a               template               for               others               to               follow               and               improve               upon               if               possible.

We               have               witnessed               the               key               ingredients               necessary               for               a               successful               guerilla               public               relations               campaign:               a               highly               charismatic,               eloquent               and               erudite               leader;               technological               proficiency;               the               forging               of               bonds               with               civil               society               (especially               radicals               such               as               students,               intellectuals,               Trades               Unions,               music               idols               and               movie               stars,               etc.);               the               knowledge               of               when               to               fight               and               when               not               to,               of               when               to               talk               and               when               to               remain               silent;               the               ability               to               shift               one's               emphasis               and               not               appear               fickle               and               to               adapt               oneself               to               a               changing               situation;               and               finally,               and               most               importantly,               to               be               fortunate,               especially               in               one's               timing."[39]
               Henck's               subtitle               even               alludes               to               something               other               than               a               plain               historiography               or               article:               "Marcos               Mystique",               "Guerrilla               Chic",               and               Zapatista               P.R.

The               term               "Marcos               Mystique"               is               not               even               treated               as               possessive-Henck               coins               the               term               as               a               noun;               as               something               one               aspires               to               have               or               command.

The               creation               of               this               aura,               "The               Cult               of               Marcos",               reveals               that               for               many               writers,               both               academic               and               journalistic,               the               lure               of               the               Subcomandante               is               too               compelling               to               ignore.

Beyond               the               production               of               Marcos               by               all               parties,               including               himself,               the               romanticized               ideal               of               a               revolutionary               remained               appealing;               the               noble               cause,               the               true               freedom,               the               chance               to               start               something               new,               living               against               the               grain,               and               being               a               nuisance               to               taken-for-granted               power               structures.

All               of               these               concepts,               though               underlying,               further               reveal               that               writers               possibly               tried               to               live               vicariously               through               Marcos.

Henck               analyzes               these               yearnings,               yet,               while               projecting               them               upon               the               media               as               the               fad               titled,               "Guerrilla               Chic",               he               cannot               help               but               fall               into               the               same               feeling               of               fanciful               longing               with               the               ideation               of               Marcos.
               The               examples               cited               here,               both               academic               and               popular,               represent               only               a               drop               in               the               pool               of               literature               on               Marcos.

However,               each               indicates               the               varying               grades               of               celebrity               he               merited               among               leftist               constituents.

Veltmeyer               and               Bruhn               clearly               espouse               traditional               leftist               ideals               through               their               conscription               of               Marcos               into               Marxist               and               Gramscian               ethics               respectively.

Dominguez'               artistic               rendition               of               Marcos               found               its               primary               audience               at               universities,               art               districts,               and               progressive               websites-all               linked               in               one               form               another               to               more               blatantly               leftist               sites.

These               arenas               for               performance               speak               to               the               global               appeal               of               Marcos.

Henck's               original               intent               in               his               work               was               to               utilize               Marcos               and               the               Zapatistas               as               a               perfect               model               of               waging               post-revolutionary               war               through               the               media,               yet               he               cannot               seem               to               help               immersing               himself               in               the               new               Zapatismo.

Further,               all               the               celebrities               and               political               figures               that               are               known               advocates               for               progressive               ideas               and               sought               audience               with               Marcos               confirmed               his               rising               star.

Finally,               the               gushing               quotes               from               respected               writers               such               as               Klein,               Guillermoprieto,               McCaughan,               Paz,               and               Hayden               assert               that               the               Subcomandante               is               that               catalyst               the               Left               had               been               missing;               the               living,               more               modern               'Che'.
               Feeding               the               Masses:               Marcos'               Unintentional               and               Intentional               Self-Production
               So               what               was               it               about               Marcos               that               motivated               leftist               constituents               from               all               walks               of               life               and               different               corners               of               the               world               to               construct               such               an               iconographic               image               of               the               revolutionary?

Portions               of               the               answer               have               already               appeared               here               to               include               the               overwhelming               sympathy               for               the               Zapatista               movement,               the               pioneering               and               nonviolent               forms               of               resistance               employed,               and               the               legitimacy               of               the               actions               of               both               the               Zapatistas               and               Marcos'               within               the               Zapatista               framework.

However,               tantamount               to               those               concepts,               and               potentially               of               even               more               preponderance               are               the               words               and               images               Marcos               delineated               about               himself,               the               EZLN,               and               the               larger               global               matter               of               contention               with               neoliberalism.

Self-production               undoubtedly               played               a               key               component               to               the               growing               love-affair               between               leftists               and               the               Subcomandante.

Alma               Guillermoprieto               affectionately               colors               the               impact               of               his               local               self-production               on               journalists:
               "The               Marcos               whom               I               and               other               journalists               interviewed               in               the               Zapatista               control               zone               was               a               mesmerizing               personality-self-possessed,               considerate,               ironic               and               theatrical.

He               liked               to               make               journalists               spend               hours,               or               days,               waiting               for               him,               and               then               he               would               appear               in               the               dead               of               night               and               talk               endlessly,               puffing               on               a               pipe,               tugging               at               the               uncomfortable               ski               mask,               and               asking               as               many               questions               as               he               answered-uncannily               well               informed               about               the               intellectual               and               media               world               beyond               Chiapas…               He               has               created               his               own               dazzling               image               as               a               masked               mito               genial-his               term,               meaning               an               inspired               act               of               mythmaking.

He               has               staged               a               very               real,               threatening               war               on               the               Mexican               state               based               on               almost               no               firepower               and               a               brilliant               use               of               Mexican's               most               resonant               images:               the               Revolution,               the               peasants'               unending               struggle               for               dignity               and               recognition,               the               betrayed               Emiliano               Zapata…               It               had               not               dawned               on               me               then               that               the               most               visible               and               critical               part               of               the               Zapatistas'               revolution               was               the               letters               that               the               Mexican               press               published               regularly-particularly               the               long,               sometimes               poetic,               sometimes               irreverent,               personified               postscripts               that               are               the               Subcomandante's               contribution               to               epistolary               art."[40]
               Initial               analysis               of               Guillermoprieto's               impression               of               Marcos               leaves               little               doubt               that               there               was               a               definitive               thought-process               behind               his               interactions               with               the               press.

Lengthy               waits               were               common               complaints               for               many               reporters               seeking               an               audience               with               the               Subcomandante.

While               security               measures               formed               part               of               the               excuse,               a               playful               if               not               pretentious               build-up               of               anticipation               in               the               minds               of               reporters               completed               the               reasoning.

Additionally               many               journalists               commented               on               how               knowledgeable               he               was               about               each               interviewer               surprisingly               engaging               in               more               personal               conversations.

He               also               admittedly               manufactured               a               myth               so               resonantly               powerful               in               the               local               ethos               that               militant               action               by               the               government               could               only               be               seen               as               further               betrayal               of               the               Mexican               Revolution.

Guillermoprieto               concludes               that               this               myth-making               through               both               action               and               prose               was               perfected               as               a               craftsmanship               worthy               of               exhibit.
               Naomi               Klein               drew               a               similar               conclusion               in               an               article               she               titled               "The               Unknown               Icon."               Centered               on               the               2001               Zapatista               march               to               Mexico               City               to               reengage               the               government               in               negotiation,               Klein's               article,               like               many               others,               inadvertently               becomes               an               ode               to               Marcos'               political               prowess.

Klein               appears               to               have               come               to               the               party               late,               however,               as               painting               the               Subcomandante               as               "unknown"               as               late               as               2001               assumes               there               was               a               prior               dearth               in               public               conception               of               Marcos.

That               was               certainly               not               the               case               and               Klein's               rhetoric,               while               following               the               same               pattern               of               adoration               of               other               authors,               does               hint               at               a               more               global               role               for               Marcos.

She               draws               similar               conclusions               to               Guillermoprieto's               self               myth-making               impression:               "Marcos               seems               keenly               aware               of               himself               as               an               irresistible               romantic               hero.

He's               an               Isabel               Allende               character               in               reverse-not               the               poor               peasant               who               becomes               a               Marxist               rebel,               but               a               Marxist               intellectual               who               becomes               a               poor               peasant."               She               goes               on               to               connect               these               points               with               Marcos'               newfound,               if               not,               perplexing               sex-appeal               and               trademark               humor:               "He               plays               with               his               character,               flirts               with               it,               saying               he               can't               reveal               his               real               identity               for               fear               of               disappointing               his               female               fans."[41]               These               flirtations               with               character               that               Klein               references               are               most               clear               in               Marcos'               fictitious               works.

He               pens               these               works               "in               a               tone               so               personal               and               poetic,               so               completely               and               unmistakably               his               own,               that               he               is               constantly               undercutting               and               subverting               the               anonymity               that               comes               from               his               mask               and               pseudonym."[42]
               Marcos               produced               twenty-one               books               and               over               two-hundred               essays               and               communiqués               from               1993               to               the               current               day.

The               diverse               topics               range               from               Mayan               folk               tales               to               treatises               against               neoliberalism               to               comedic               satires.

The               most               well-known               and               loved               creations               in               the               Marcos               library               are               the               tales               of               an               imaginary               beetle               named               Durito               and               the               Mayan               wise               man,               Old               Don               Antonio.

These               two               characters               are               written               about               separately               with               Durito               representing               the               modern               intellectual               and               revolutionary               side               of               Marcos               that               dabbles               with               both               local               and               global               politics;               Antonio               paints               his               more               traditional               side               infused               within               by               the               indigenous               of               the               Lacandon.

Both               characters               have               garnered               fame               for               their               opinions,               intellect,               humor,               and               symbolism-Antonio               as               an               indigenous               theoretical               founder               of               the               EZLN               who               reiterates               (and               alters)               ancient               Mayan               myths,               beliefs,               and               cultural               moors;               Durito               as               a               beetle               knight-errant               in               the               style               of               Don               Quixote               whose               humorous               adventures               are               colored               polemically.

Latin               American               literary               expert               Kristine               Vanden               Berghe's               interrogation               of               the               language               in               Marcos'               main               characters               elicits               a               grander               goal               to               relate               Antonio               and               Durito               to               EZLN               objectives               and               beliefs               which               emphatically               lends               more               credence               to               Marcos'               colossal               role               within               the               Zapatista               movement.[43]               She               further               understands               that               these               two               symbols               in               ideological               stories               relate               directly               to               the               EZLN               and               the               general               ethos               behind               its               constituents.[44]
               Marcos               introduced               these               windows               into               himself,               Durito               and               Antonio,               to               the               world               at               roughly               the               same               time               in               1994.

Again,               both               mean               to               attach               themselves               to               polar               intellectualisms               within               Marcos               and               comprise               an               innovative               ideology               that               meshes               modern               structure               with               native               tradition,               however,               Durito,               also               offers               a               little               more.

The               tales               of               Durito               and               his               engagement               with               the               world               and               Marcos,               himself,               offer               further               insight               into               the               author.

Not               only               does               Durito               more               colorfully               engage               with               the               resistance               to               neoliberalism,               but               his               personality               and               rhetoric               satirize               his               creator.

The               "little               smoking               beetle,               very               well               read               and               an               even               better               talker,               gave               himself               the               task               of               giving               his               company               to               a               soldier,               el               Sup               [Marcos'               nickname-short               for               Subcomandante]."[45]               He               was               a               "self-dubbed               knight-errant"               who               clearly               and               concisely               emblematized               Marcos'               affection               for               Cervantes'               Don               Quixote.

This               playful               flirtation               with               the               character               of               Don               Quixote               not               only               means               to               tribute               Cervantes'               renowned               classic,               but               offers               insight               into               how               Marcos               views               himself:               as               a               modern               do-gooder               with               a               pure               heart,               yet               shackled               by               misfortune               and               clumsiness.

Writing               as               an               outsider               assessing               his               own               ego,               Marcos               uses               Durito's               'Quixoteness'               to               sarcastically               echo               his               acknowledgement               of               his               own               growing               legend               as               "millions               of               women               sigh               for               him,               thousands               of               men               speak               his               name               with               respect,               and               hundreds               of               thousands               of               children               worship               him."[46]               However               unlikely               Marcos               was               to               truly               believe               in               his               own               cult               of               personality,               brief               engagements               with               his               ego               through               Durito               serve               as               a               gateway               for               deflection.
               Durito               came               to               the               world               through               a               letter               Marcos               wrote               to               a               child,               Mariana               Moguel,               who               had               sent               the               Zapatistas               a               cherished               drawing               shortly               after               the               initial               military               action.

Marcos               responded               with               a               letter               to               her               that               told               the               story               of               how               he               met               the               little               beetle.

The               story               itself               encompasses               much               of               what               makes               Marcos'               writing               so               appealing.

The               infusion               of               humor,               polemics,               colorful               imagery,               and               poetic               cadence               connote               El               Sup's               literary               gift.

Short               of               offering               the               tale               here               in               its               entirety,               the               early               exchange               between               Marcos               and               Durito-who               appears               both               as               representative               of               a               specific               side               of               Marcos               and               as               a               distinct               conscience-ala               Jiminy               Cricket-left               little               doubt               in               the               public               imaginary               that               this               was               not               'just               another'               guerilla               militant               seeking               revolution.

Yet,               even               in               this               early               piece,               modern               capitalism               comes               under               fire,               albeit               humorously.

Durito               indicates               understanding               neoliberalism               is               relevant               for               a               mere               beetle               in               the               Lacandon               Jungle               as               the               counteroffensive               by               the               EZLN               makes               his               home               quite               dangerous:               "we               beetles               need               to               know               how               long               we               are               going               to               have               to               make               sure               that               you               do               not               squash               us               with               your               big               boots."[47]               Marcos'               sarcasm               in               this               sequence               is               obscured,               yet               apparent.

He               definitively               marks               neoliberalism               as               detrimental,               but               makes               light               of               it               as               merely               leaving               beetles               vulnerable               to               being               squashed.
               The               tales               of               Durito               do               not               solely               include               comedic               exchanges,               however.

"The               Glass               to               See               to               the               Other               Side"               follows               Durito               through               the               streets               of               Mexico               City.

The               capital               is               clearly               meant               to               symbolize               the               monotonous               and               dehumanizing               effects               of               the               neoliberal               world.

Durito               walks               the               streets               unnoticed               "for               the               simple               reason               that               in               this               city               no               one               sees               anymore."[48]               In               other               words,               everyone               is               too               busy,               too               engaged               with               materials,               too               used               to               the               homogenizing               effects               that               global               capitalism               has               upon               culture               that               even               a               piano-playing               beetle               dressed-up               like               Humphrey               Bogart               goes               unnoticed.

Durito               echoes:
               "This               city               is               sick,               it               is               sick               from               loneliness               and               fear.

It               is               a               great               collective               of               solitudes.

It               is               a               collection               of               cities,               one               for               each               resident.

It's               not               about               sums               of               anguish,               but               about               a               potency;               each               loneliness               is               multiplied               by               the               number               of               lonely               people               that               surrounded               it.

It               is               as               though               each               person's               solitude               entered               a               House               of               Mirrors,               like               those               you               see               in               the               county               fairs.

Each               solitude               is               a               mirror               that               reflects               another               solitude,               and               like               a               mirror,               bounces               off               more               solitudes."[49]
               He               goes               onto               notice               a               music               box               in               a               store               window               with               a               single,               statuesque               ballerina               poised               to               dance.

Her               essence               meant               to               reveal               that               there               is               still               hope               for               this               city.

Durito,               outside               the               window,               begins               to               play               a               piano               and               the               ballerina               begins               to               dance.

This               is               his               goodbye               gift               to               the               city               and               as               Marcos               tells               it,               the               city               never               expected               one.

The               colorful               depiction               by               El               Sup               goes               on               to               contrast               the               difference               between               the               mirrors               and               the               mere               glass               separating               Durito               and               his               ballerina.

When               it               is               done,               the               protagonist               asks:               "Will               you               always               be               behind               the               glass               pane?

Will               you               always               be               on               the               other               side               of               my               over               here,               and               will               I               always               be               on               this               side               of               your               over               there?"[50]               As               Durito               looks               back,               he               notices               the               ballerina               is               gone,               her               escape               allows               hope               to               survive,               even               in               Mexico               City,               for               Durito,               for               Marcos,               for               the               EZLN,               and               for               the               world.

The               deep               nature               of               this               tale               marks               the               Subcomandante's               versatility               in               prose               and               poetic               quotes               assuredly               added               to               his               growing               legion.

He               completes               Durito's               journey               to               the               capital               with               a               quote               that               sounds               like               it               should               appear               on               a               Hallmark               card               and               not               a               revolutionary's               lips:               "Happiness               is               like               a               gift;               it               lasts               for               a               moment,               and               it               is               worth               it."[51]               Durito's               adventures               thereafter               alternate               between               spoofs               on               Quixote               and               deeper               metaphoric               engagements               with               neoliberalism.

Marcos               injects               himself               as               a               character               into               most               of               the               stories               morphing               Durito               from               a               vibrant               user-friendly               version               of               the               Subcomandante               to               a               sidekick;               again,               a               sort               of               conscience.
               In               contrast,               the               tales               of               Old               Don               Antonio               place               Marcos               into               the               role               of               student.

Antonio               is               clearly               the               wise               teacher               and               in               metaphorical               and               assumed               metaphysical               oral               histories,               relates               Mayan               traditionalism               to               Marcos               who               passes               it               on               to               his               audience.

While               'Antonio'               is               fictive               in               Macros'               work,               the               character               is               based               upon               the               real               likeness               and               wisdom               of               an               EZLN               founding               member.

Anyone               remotely               familiar               with               American               Indian               or               African               tribal               lore               can               find               similar               essences               in               these               stories               as               they               paint               a               more               naturalistic               and               earthly               relationship               between               peoples,               the               physical               world,               and               the               spiritual               realm.

A               perfect               example               deals               with               mirrors               and               certainly               motivated               Marcos'               discussion               with               them               in               the               above               cited               story               of               Durito               in               Mexico               City.

Antonio               states               that               the               moon               itself               is               a               mirror               created               by               a               punishment               from               the               gods               toward               an               ambitious               lake               who               manipulated               other               natural               wonders               to               reach               the               sky.

The               gods               meant               for               lakes               to               be               in               the               ground               as               keepers               of               the               light               they               placed               inside               the               earth.

When               this               rogue               lake               sought               to               travel               the               skies,               it               broke               the               rules               and               was               turned               into               the               moon,               never               to               have               its               own               light               again               and               merely               impersonate               a               mirror.

"When               the               moon               strolls               over               a               lake,               the               mirror               looks               at               itself               in               the               mirror.

And               no               matter               what,               the               moon               is               never               happy               or               sad,               she               is               malcontent."[52]               What               becomes               apparent               in               this               story               about               the               creation               of               the               moon               and               mirrors               themselves,               is               that               through               metaphor,               Marcos               clearly               indicates               that               being               a               mirror               (like               in               Durito's               tale)               is               ultimately               undesirable.

The               lake's               ambition               to               be               'more'               and               to               disobey               its               inherent               place               on               the               earth               robbed               it               of               its               own               identity               and               all               it               could               be               was               reflective               of               something               else.

Again,               the               concept               derides               neoliberalism-those               that               continue               to               acquire               material               beyond               necessity               or               that               must               be               better               than               others               can               only               achieve               these               ends               by               marginalizing               people,               places,               cultures-pretty               much               anything.

The               irony               to               this               facet               of               the               neoliberal               ethic               is               that               in               creating               a               need               for               more,               people               within               society               all               want               the               same               'more'.

Thus,               they               lose               their               individualism               and               become               solely               mirrors.
               Most               tales               of               Antonio               make               similar               subliminal               assertions               and               convey               traditionalist               Indian-type               metaphors.

However,               certain               points               of               contention               arise               from               a               few               Zapatista               detractors               and               stem               from               the               stories               related               by               Antonio.

Being               indigenous               and               specifically               Mayan,               many               accuse               these               stories               of               contributing               to               an               ethnocentric               movement.

These               stories               are               not               the               sole               proprietor               of               this               concept,               but               their               publishing               certainly               provided               opponents               of               the               Zapatistas               a               tangible               straw               to               grasp.

A               quote               from               "The               Story               of               the               Seven               Rainbows"               marks               the               people               that               comprise               the               Zapatista               communities               as               the               "true               ones"               several               times               and               could               be               construed               to               situate               these               Mayan               descendents               above               others.
               "And               that               is               the               agreement               arrived               at               by               the               first               gods               and               men               and               women               of               corn,               the               true               ones.

And               ever               since               that               afternoon               of               happiness               and               knowing,               they               spend               their               lives               making               bridges               in               death.

The               bridges               are               always               made               of               colors,               of               clouds               and               of               light               to               go               from               one               place               to               the               other,               to               carry               out               the               tasks               that               give               birth               to               the               new               world,               that               makes               us               good               seven               times               seven               walking               seven,               the               men               and               women               of               corn,               the               true               ones.

Making               bridges,               they               live,               making               themselves               bridges,               they               die."[53]
               The               words               "true               ones"               is               apparent               and               it               certainly               refers               to               the               "people               of               corn"               as               Mayan               descendents               have               called               themselves.

That               said,               the               story               itself               relates               that               the               different               colors               of               the               rainbow               are               all               important               and               that               the               bridges               these               people               build               contribute               to               their               maintenance               as               well               as               birthing               a               new               world.

In               other               words,               Antonio               does               iterate               the               importance               of               the               corn               people,               but               he               does               so               as               bridge               builders               between               differences.

To               create               a               new               and               better               world,               all               of               the               colors               are               required               and               Antonio's               people               are               endowed               with               the               ability               to               ensure               that               all               are               included.

This               finalizing               thought               could               not               more               perfectly               equate               to               modern               leftist               ideals               of               diversity,               equality,               and               democracy.
               Furthering               this               rhetoric               on               the               importance               of               'all'               through               chromatic               metaphor               is               Antonio's               tale               that               Marcos               turned               into               a               children's               book,               The               Story               of               Colors.

The               book               follows               the               lineal               creation               of               the               seven               major               colors               by               the               gods               through               imaginative               and               accidental               discovery.

Marcos               also               identifies               the               macaw               as               the               primary               agent               for               maintaining               all               the               colors               lest               the               world               and               the               gods               ever               forget               what               they               were.

While               the               book               received               global               acclaim,               it               created               controversy               in               the               U.S.

as               certain               themes               such               as               lovemaking               and               smoking               as               well               as               the               neoliberal               construct               of               Marcos               as               antagonistic               to               American               values               scared               publishers               away.

Eventually               it               found               its               way               into               the               market               through               smaller               printing               companies               and               made               a               marginal               impact.

Thematically,               the               book               is               a               perfect               way               to               get               younger               children               to               understand               the               basic               premise               of               the               Zapatista               cause.

It               is               broken               down               to               the               lowest               common               denominator               on               the               last               page               as               the               macaw               represents               Zapatismo               for               children:               "The               macaw               took               hold               of               the               colors,               and               so               it               goes               strutting               about               just               in               case               men               and               women               forget               how               many               colors               there               are               and               how               many               different               ways               of               thinking,               and               that               the               world               will               be               happy               if               all               the               colors               and               ways               of               thinking               have               their               place."[54]
               Through               both               Antonio               and               Durito,               Marcos               is               able               to               convey               almost               the               entirety               of               the               new               Zapatismo               and               the               EZLN               ideologies.

He               meshes               anti-neoliberal               rhetoric               with               Mayan               traditionalism               and               idealist-styled               prose               that               clearly               advocates               equality,               diversity,               democracy,               and               the               social               movement               forward               necessary               to               meet               these               goals.

The               imaginative               methodology               of               utilizing               these               characters               further               outlines               the               innovative               form               of               revolution               he               sparked.

Beyond               the               primary               characters               discussed               here,               Marcos               authored               a               number               of               other               metaphorical,               poetic,               comedic,               and               political-satirical               'stand               alone'               works               that               mate               well               with               both               Antonio               and               Durito.[55]               It               is,               however,               these               two               seemingly               divergent               characters               that               are               windows               (and               perhaps               even               mirrors)               into               the               thoughts               that               compose               Marcos;               they're               from               different               worlds,               but               they               meet               in               one               space,               in               Marcos'               mind,               and               equally               compose               the               ideas               that               make               the               man               and               'his'               movement               unique               and               necessary               to               the               global               left's               resistance.
               More               direct               confrontations               with               neoliberalism               were               common               place               throughout               Marcos               communiqués,               published               articles,               and               political               letters               and               thorough               analysis               of               all               would               only               provide               further               ammunition               for               leftist               ideologues               looking               for               a               shepherd.

Yet,               one               in               particular               titled,               "The               Fourth               World               War               Has               Begun",               is               possibly               the               most               candid               and               cogent               dissection               of               global               capitalism               written               by               anyone.

Critiques               on               socio-economic               policies               are               relatively               numerous.

Many               even,               in               their               most               basic               essence,               articulate               similar               blatant               contempt               for               progressive,               post-revolutionary               capitalism.

However,               Marcos'               poetic               cadence,               variegated               use               of               metaphor,               and               venomous               undertone               convey               that               he               is               no               customary               polemic               writer.

The               construction               of               the               ideas               set               forth               solidify               his               scholarly               background               and               lack               the               cumbersome               rigidity               expected               in               academia               point               decidedly               to               his               immersion               into               indigenous               and               lower-class               culture.

Who               else               could               be               this               academic               in               his               approach               while               eschewing               the               cold               blandness               that               hindered               his               revolutionary               predecessors?

The               Leftist               allusions               in               a               most               elementary               manner               could               be               made               to               Marx,               Lenin,               Trotsky,               Mao,               and               many               others,               yet               Marcos'               words               captivate               differently.

It               is               this               difference               that               he               seeks               to               cultivate               throughout               Leftist               movements               around               the               world.
               He               begins               the               article               by               historically               contextualizing               this               new               war               against               neoliberal               progress.

"As               a               world               system,               neoliberalism               is               a               new               war               for               the               conquest               of               territory.

The               ending               of               the               Third               World               War-meaning               the               Cold               War-in               no               sense               means               that               the               world               has               gone               beyond               the               bipolar               and               found               stability               under               the               domination               of               a               single               victor."               He               explains               further               that               these               "vast               territories,               wealth,               and               above               all,               a               huge               and               available               workforce               lie               waiting               for               the               world's               new               master."               The               new               master               he               points               to               is               not               a               single               entity-it               is               not               a               person,               a               government,               nor               a               nation;               it               is               the               'free'               financial               market.

He               empathically               describes               that:
               "Globalization               is               merely               the               totalitarian               extension               of               the               logic               of               the               finance               markets               to               all               aspects               of               life.

Where               they               were               once               in               command               of               their               economies,               the               nation               states               (and               their               governments)               are               now               commanded-or               rather               telecommanded-by               the               same               basic               logic               of               financial               power,               commercial               free               trade.

In               addition,               this               logic               has               profited               from               permeability               created               by               development               of               telecommunications               to               appropriate               all               aspects               of               social               activity.

At               last,               a               world               war               which               is               totally               total!"
               By               revealing               that               national               sovereignty               has               been               compromised               by               commerce               he               assigns               the               war               its               global               role,               but               unlike               globalization               supporters,               Marcos               argues               that               world               markets               erode               government               accountability,               destroy               culture,               and               marginalize               non-producers/consumers.

He               uses               metaphor               to               color               the               burgeoning               and               grating               relationship               being               formed               between               national               and               international               interests.

"The               son               (neoliberalism)               is               devouring               the               father               (national               capital),               and               in               the               process,               is               destroying               the               lies               of               capitalist               ideology;               in               the               new               world               order               there               is               no               democracy               nor               freedom,               neither               equality               nor               fraternity.

The               planetary               stage               is               transformed               into               a               new               battlefield               in               which               chaos               reigns."               Delineating               more               issues               with               the               process,               Marcos               compares               modern               politicians               to               mere               "company               mangers"               meant               to               serve               only               the               market.

He               indicates               that               the               dehumanizing               effect               of               neoliberalism               means               to               eliminate               all               persons               "who               are               of               no               use               to               the               economy"               and               that               the               only               commodities               flow               freely               in               the               new               hypermarket,               "not               people."               All               those               who               remain               included               in               the               neoliberal               plan               become               homogenized;               cultureless               and               based               on               a               single               model               of               being:               American.

Marcos               goes               onto               break               down               each               facet               of               neoliberal               discourse               and               the               near-suicidal               direction               it               is               taking               the               world.

The               landmark               quote               of               the               treatise,               almost               Manifesto-esque               in               its               imagery               and               directive               encompasses               the               exclusive               nature               of               his               prose:
               "In               the               cabaret               of               globalization,               the               state               performs               a               striptease,               at               the               end               of               which               it               is               left               wearing               the               minimum               necessary:               its               powers               of               repression.

With               its               material               base               destroyed,               its               sovereignty               and               independence               abolished,               and               its               political               class               eradicated,               the               nation               state               increasingly               becomes               a               mere               security               apparatus               in               the               service               of               the               mega-enterprises               which               neoliberalism               is               constructing.

Instead               of               orienting               public               investment               toward               social               spending,               it               prefers               to               improve               the               equipment               which               enables               it               to               control               society               more               effectively."[56]
               This               quote               as               with               the               rest               of               the               piece,               leaves               no               doubt               that               for               Marcos,               his               battle               for               indigenous               rights               in               Mexico               is               only               one               facet               in               the               larger               resistance               to               the               neoliberal               "cabaret"               bamboozling               the               globe.
               Concluding               Thoughts
               The               ultimate               failures               of               neoliberal               capitalism               are               difficult               to               assess               from               the               vantage               point               of               citizens               residing               in               any               of               the               limited               handful               of               economically               dominant               states.

All               are               endowed               with               the               basic               necessities               required               for               mere               survival               and               most               are               granted               the               means               to               attain               much               more.

Idealized               versions               of               free               market               economies               are               created               in               a               general               ethos               and               perpetuated               through               social               educational               indoctrination.

Order               is               maintained               through               continued               promise               of               material               gain               while               sources               of               potential               strife               are               usually               quietly               quelled               through               a               number               of               different               methods.

Most               importantly,               however,               is               that               the               comfortable               populace               must               remain               ignorant               to               the               effects               that               its               lifestyle               has               on               a               global               scale.

This               necessary               ignorance               can               either               be               achieved               through               state               sponsorship               or               individual               cooptation               as               many               openly               choose               to               ignore               the               plight               of               others.

As               long               as               more               can               be               consumed               and               their               lifestyles               are               not               directly               compromised,               there               is               no               need               to               recognize               that               the               global               support               system               necessary               to               maintaining               this               perpetuation               is               oppression.

Common               practice               among               critics               of               this               ensconced               ignorance               is               to               call               into               attention               the               environmental               impact               of               the               neoliberal               ethos,               however,               dominance,               subjugation,               and               indirect               abrogation               of               'developing               world'               peoples               was               rarely               connected               on               the               same               premise.

Recognition               of               a               developing               and               grating               relationship,               articulated               by               the               quote               below,               had               been               highly               glossed-over.
               "The               key               to               the               dynamic               response               of               the               peasant               sector               to               neoliberal               capitalism               is               the               generation               of               a               new               structure               of               class               relationships               and               conditions.

Under               the               conditions               of               this               structure,               working-class               organizations               and               social               movements,               hitherto               conceived               by               many               as               the               central               revolutionary               social               subject,               by               and               large               have               been               weakened               and               disarticulated               by               the               forces               of               neoliberal               capitalism               and               their               leadership               either               accommodated               to               the               prevailing               system               or               deficient."[57]
               Yet               this               announcement               by               Henry               Veltmeyer               reveals               that               dialogue               on               the               negative               effects               of               neoliberalism               is               now               fully               engaged               due               in               large               part               to               the               emergence               of               the               EZLN.

The               Marcos-infused               revolutionary               movement               of               southern               Mexico               garnered               worldwide               recognition               using,               oddly               enough,               the               internet               and               modern               media;               methods               of               communication               formed,               promoted               by,               and               grounded               in               neoliberal               concepts.
               This               broad               affront               against               neoliberalism               was/is               greatly               abetted               through               the               conduit               of               the               Zapatistas               and               their               ascendance               can               be               attributed               considerably               to               Marcos.

The               irony               is               that               this               sought-after               leader               of               a               potential               global               Leftist               rebellion               did               not               recognize               himself               as               a               leader               even               within               the               EZLN;               hence,               keeping               the               title               'Subcomandante'               and               the               intentional               creation               of               the               CCRI               with               democratically-elected               Comandantes.

Or               maybe               he               appealed               to               a               new               kind               of               leadership               as               Naomi               Klein               claimed               he               did.

Anthropologist               George               Collier               indentifies               varying               new               concepts               of               leadership               both               fomented               by               the               Zapatistas               and               their               neoliberal               counter-parts.

Collier               differentiates               between               the               two               leadership               types               as               ranked-based               and               class-based.

He               indicates               that               there               is               a               growing               evolution               of               rank-based               leadership               into               class-based               leadership               in               burgeoning               capitalist               societies.

Class-based               leaders,               needless               to               say,               see               the               world               materialistically               and               assign               status               based               upon               manufactured               ideas               of               worth;               there               is               no               such               thing               as               intrinsic               value-including               for               people.

Collier               fits               his               definition               of               rank-based               leader               and               the               assumed               benevolence               of               such               upon               Marcos.

"They               act               effectively               on               other's               behalf               and               [are]               adept               at               pooling               and               channeling               others'               resources               for               both               personal               and               the               common               good.

Rank-based               leaders               often               served               their               communities               by               acting               as               brokers               with               the               outside               world               or               as               intermediaries               to               other               groups."[58]               The               saturation               of               work               done               on               Subcomandante               Marcos               has               received               the               lion's               share               of               both               scholarly               and               lay               attention.

A               self-proclaimed               and               celebrated               democratic               ideal               has               been               perpetuated               by               both               the               EZLN               and               outsiders               considering               the               EZLN.

This               ideal               essentially               indicates               that               the               Zapatistas               are               truly               a               bottom-up,               clandestine               organization               that               has               no               direct               leadership               but               that               of               the               whole               represented               by               the               CCRI.

However,               utilizing               Collier's               rank-based               assessment,               few               would               argue               that               any               other               member               has               nearly               the               influence               of               Marcos               does               when               dealing               with               the               outside               world.

Internal               subordination               to               the               larger               indigenous               constituency               only               canonizes               him               further               among               his               dedicatees.
               Debate               on               how               to               define               Marcos               as               a               leader               within               the               Zapatista               framework               is               ultimately               unnecessary               to               begin               with.

There               is               little               doubt               that               the               cult               of               personality               birthed               by               both               self               and               outside               production               of               a               myth-               "The               King               of               the               Jungle",               "The               Unknown               Icon",               "The               Subcommander               of               Spin",               or               simply               "El               Sup"               has               crowned               the               man               the               New               Left's               champion               against               neoliberalism.

This               global               recognition               speaks               to               the               idea               that               even               if               the               EZLN               itself               does               not               declare               itself               as               'led',               the               new               world               they               are               seeking               their               place               in               has               and               that               leader               is               not               theirs               alone.
               [1]               Naomi               Klein,               "The               Unknown               Icon",               The               Guardian               (March               3rd,               2001),               pp.

123.
               [2]               Found               in:               Nicholas               Henck,               Broadening               the               Struggle               and               Winning               the               Media               War:               'Marcos               Mystique,'               Guerilla               Chic,               and               Zapatista               PR               (Montreal:               Kersplebedeb,               2002),pp.

11.
               [3]               El               Kilombo               Intergalactico,               Beyond               Resistence:               Everything               (Durham:               Paper               Boat               Press,               2007)               pp.

3
               [4]               Bart               Maddens               and               Kristine               Vanden               Berghe,               "Ethnocentrism,               Nationalism,               and               Post-Nationalism               in               the               Tales               of               Subcomandante               Marcos",               Mexican               Studies/Estudios               Mexicanos               (Winter,               2004),               pp.

124.
               [5]               In               an               effort               to               debunk               the               growing               mystique               of               both               the               EZLN               and               Marcos,               the               Mexican               government               sought               to               unmask               the               revolutionary               by               identifying               him               as               Guillen.

They               traced               his               origins               to               a               politically               active               family               in               the               northern               state               of               Tamaulipas.

Marcos               has               neither               confirmed               nor               denied               this               allegation.

His               self-proclaimed               status               of               translator               was               revealed               in               an               interview               for               the               book               Subcomandante               Marcos:               El               Sueno               Zapatista,               Barcelona,               Plaza               Y               Janez               (1997)               written               by               Yvon               Le               Bot.
               [6]               Gloria               Munoz               Ramirez,               The               Fire               and               the               Word:               A               History               of               the               Zapatista               Movement               (San               Francisco:               City               Light               Publishers,               2008),               pp.

13.
               [7]               Porfiristas               alludes               to               all               Mexicans               whom               supported               and               thrived               under               the               dictatorship               of               Porfirio               Diaz               (1876-1880,               1884-1911).

His               rule,               dubbed               the               Porifiriato,               was               marked               by               steady               economic               growth               through               consistent               erosion               of               individual               rights,               capitulation               of               precious               resources               to               foreign               enterprises,               social               stratification,               nullifying               public               and               communal               lands,               and               an               attack               upon               traditional               cultures               (both               indigenous               and               Catholic).

His               attempts               at               rapid               modernization               through               these               methods               remain               one               of               the               most               controversial               topics               in               Mexican               historiography.
               [8]               Tom               Hayden,               "In               Chiapas",               from               the               Zapatista               Reader               (New               York:               Nation               Books,               2002),               pp.

88.
               [9]               Rachel               Neumann,               "We               Make               the               Road               by               Walking:               Lessons               from               the               Zapatista               Caravan",               Monthly               Review               (June               2001):               www.monthlyreview.org
               [10]               John               Womack               Jr.,               Rebellion               in               Chiapas               (New               York:               The               New               York               Press,               1999),               pp.

27.
               [11]               Found               in               John               Womack               Jr.,               Rebellion               In               Chiapas               (New               York:               The               New               York               Press,               1999),               pp.

31.
               [12]               Found               in               John               Womack               Jr.,               Rebellion               In               Chiapas               (New               York:               The               New               York               Press,               1999,               pp.

23.
               [13]               Complete               historical               analyses               on               the               conflicted               state               of               Chiapas               Pre-EZLN               as               well               as               the               influence               of               Bishop               Samuel               Ruiz               can               be               found               in               George               Collier               and               Elizabeth               Quaratiello's               Basta!

(Oakland:               Food               First               Books,               1994).
               [14]               Eduarado               Galeano,               "Chiapas               Chronicle",               La               Jornada               (April               7th,               1996),               pp.

49.
               [15]               John               Womack               Jr.,               Rebellion               in               Chiapas               (New               York:               The               New               York               Press,               1999),               Chapter               16.
               [16]               Subcomandante               Marcos,               "A               Storm               and               a               Prophecy"               [unpublished               in               1992]               in               Our               Word               is               our               Weapon               (New               York:               Seven               Stories               Press,               2003),               pp.

29.
               [17]               Memorandum               0261-3050(94)00025-5,               "The               Reform               of               Article               27               and               Urbanisation               of               the               Ejido               in               Mexico",               Bulletin               of               Latin               American               Research,               (September               1994):               pp.

327.
               [18]               Javier               Elorriaga,               Zapatista,               A               Big               Noise               Film               (1999),               min.

10:16.
               [19]               Already               cited               throughout               this               work               examples               that               encapsulate               the               entire               build-up               to               the               militant               portion               of               Zapatista               history               include               Gloria               Munoz               Ramirez'               The               Fire               and               the               Word,               John               Womack's               Rebellion               in               Chiapas,               and               Geroge               Collier's               Basta!.
               [20]               Subcomandante               Marcos,               Found               in:               Alma               Guillermoprieto's,               "The               Unmasking",               The               New               Yorker               (March               13th,               1995),               pp.

42.
               [21]               Kathleen               Bruhn,               "Gramsci               and               the               Palabra               Verdadera:               The               Political               Discourse               of               Mexico's               Guerrilla               Forces",               Journal               of               Interamerican               Studies               and               World               Affairs               (Summer               1999):               pp.

42.
               [22]               www.ezln.org.
               [23]               Tom               Hayden,               The               Zapatista               Reader               (New               York:               Nation               Books,               2001),               pp.

7.
               [24]               Tom               Hayden,               The               Zapatista               Reader               (New               York:               Nation               Books,               2001),               pp.

12.
               [25]               Gloria               Munoz               Ramirez,               The               Fire               and               the               Word:               A               History               of               the               Zapatista               Movement               (San               Francisco:               City               Light               Publishers,               2008),               pp.

133.
               [26]               Alma               Guillermoprieto,               "The               Unmasking",               The               New               Yorker               (March               13th,               1995),               pp.

43.
               [27]Joel               Simon,               "The               Marcos               Mystery:               A               Chat               with               the               Subcommander               of               Spin",               Columbia               Journalism               Review               (September               1994),               pp.

11.
               [28]               A               Place               Called               Chiapas,               British               Columbia               Films               Commission               (1998),               min               18:29.
               [29]               Naomi               Klein,               "Farewell               to               the               End               of               History:               Organization               and               Vision               in               Anti-Corporate               Movements",               The               Socialist               Register               (2002),               pp.

5.
               [30]               Henry               Veltmeyer,               "The               Dynamics               of               Social               Change               and               Mexico's               EZLN",               Latin               American               Perspectives               (September,               2000),               pp.

92.
               [31]               Henry               Veltmeyer,               "The               Dynamics               of               Social               Change               and               Mexico's               EZLN",               Latin               American               Perspectives               (September,               2000),               pp.

93.
               [32]               Kathleen               Bruhn,               "Gramsci               and               the               Palabra               Verdadera:               The               Political               Discourse               of               Mexico's               Guerrilla               Forces",               Journal               of               Interamerican               Studies               and               World               Affairs               (Summer               1999),               pp.

28.
               [33]               Kathleen               Bruhn,               "Gramsci               and               the               Palabra               Verdadera:               The               Political               Discourse               of               Mexico's               Guerrilla               Forces",               Journal               of               Interamerican               Studies               and               World               Affairs               (Summer               1999),               pp.

41.
               [34]               Alma               Guillermoprieto,               "The               Unmasking",               The               New               Yorker               (March               13th,               1995),               pp.

42.
               [35]               Michael               McCaughan,               "King               of               the               Jungle",               Found               in:               The               Zapatista               Reader               (New               York:               Nation               Books,               2001),               pp.

74.
               [36]               Ricardo               Dominguez               and               Jill               Lane,               "Digital               Zapatistas",               The               MIT               Press               (Summer               2003),               pp.

132.
               [37]               Ricardo               Dominguez               and               Jill               Lane,               "Digital               Zapatistas",               The               MIT               Press               (Summer               2003),               pp.

135.
               [38]               Nicholas               Henck,               Broadening               the               Struggle               and               Winning               the               Media               War:               'Marcos               Mystique,'               Guerilla               Chic,               and               Zapatista               PR               (Montreal:               Kersplebedeb,               2002),               pp.

41.
               [39]               Nicholas               Henck,               Broadening               the               Struggle               and               Winning               the               Media               War:               'Marcos               Mystique,'               Guerilla               Chic,               and               Zapatista               PR               (Montreal:               Kersplebedeb,               2002),               pp.

40.
               [40]               Alma               Guillermoprieto,               "The               Unmasking",               The               New               Yorker               (March               13th,               1995),               pp.

42.
               [41]               Naomi               Klein,               "The               Unknown               Icon",               The               Guardian               (March               3rd,               2001),               pp.

117.
               [42]               Naomi               Klein,               "The               Unknown               Icon",               The               Guardian               (March               3rd,               2001),               pp.

117.
               [43]               Kristine               Vanden               Berghe,               "Ethnocentrism,               Nationalism,               and               Post-Nationalism               in               the               Tales               of               Subcommandante               Marcos",               Mexican               Studies/Estudios               Mexicanos.

(Winter               2004),               pp.

123-144.
               [44]               This               general               ethos               must               be               considered               amalgamated.

The               EZLN               directives               are               quite               clear:               true               democracy,               indigenous               rights,               equal               opportunity               and               government               accountability               (in               my               own               words).

However               when               considering               the               mindset,               or               ethos,               of               Zapatistas               and               their               projected               avenues               of               achieving               these               directives,               the               waters               muddy               a               great               deal.

Many               could               follow               the               lines               of               "Antonio"               and               seek               to               mesh               Mayan               tradition               and               prominence               with               modernity               while               many               others               could               adhere               to               Durito's               more               global               battle               with               neoliberalism.

This               is               perhaps               why               so               many               sources               seek               to               mold               the               EZLN               to               fit               their               own               confessed               leftist               ideology.
               [45]               Subcomandante               Marcos,               "Ten               Years               Later:               Durito               Found               Us               Again",               Our               Word               is               Our               Weapon               (New               York:               Seven               Stories               Press,               2003),               pp.

289.
               [46]               Subcomandante               Marcos,               "Ten               Years               Later:               Durito               Found               Us               Again",               Our               Word               is               Our               Weapon               (New               York:               Seven               Stories               Press,               2003),               pp.

289.
               [47]               Subcomandante               Marcos,               "To               Marian               Moguel               (age               ten)",               Our               Word               is               Our               Weapon               (New               York:               Seven               Stories               Press,               2003),               pp.

292.
               [48]               Subcomandante               Marcos,               "The               Glass               to               See               to               the               Other               Side",               Our               Word               is               Our               Weapon               (New               York:               Seven               Stories               Press,               2003),               pp.

294.
               [49]               Subcomandante               Marcos,               "The               Glass               to               See               to               the               Other               Side",               Our               Word               is               Our               Weapon               (New               York:               Seven               Stories               Press,               2003),               pp.

294-295.
               [50]               Subcomandante               Marcos,               "The               Glass               to               See               to               the               Other               Side",               Our               Word               is               Our               Weapon               (New               York:               Seven               Stories               Press,               2003),               pp.

296.
               [51]               Subcomandante               Marcos,               "The               Glass               to               See               to               the               Other               Side",               Our               Word               is               Our               Weapon               (New               York:               Seven               Stories               Press,               2003),               pp.

294.
               [52]               Subcomandante               Marcos,               "The               Story               of               Mirrors",               Our               Word               is               Our               Weapon               (New               York:               Seven               Stories               Press,               2003),               pp.

379.
               [53]               Subcomandante               Marcos,               "The               Story               of               the               Seven               Rainbows",               Our               Word               is               Our               Weapon               (New               York:               Seven               Stories               Press,               2003),               pp.

385.
               [54]               Subcomandante               Marcos,               The               Story               of               Colors               (El               Paso:               Cinco               Punto               Press,               1999),               pp.

32.
               [55]               A               near               complete               collection               of               these               various               works               can               be               referenced               in               Our               Word               is               Our               Weapon,               the               preeminent               compilation               of               Marcos               works               that               truly               shows               the               range               of               his               literary               resume.
               [56]               All               quoted               material               in               above               segment               from               Subcomandante               Marcos,               "The               Fourth               World               War               has               Begun",               Le               Monde               Diplomatique               (September               1997),               online               archive.
               [57]               Henry               Veltmeyer,               "The               Dynamics               of               Social               Change               and               Mexico's               EZLN",               Latin               American               Perspectives               (September,               2000),               pp.

90.
               [58]               George               A.

Collier               and               Elizabeth               Lowery               Quaratiello,               Basta!

Land               and               the               Zapatista               Rebellion               in               Chiapas               (Oakland:               Food               First               Books,               1994)               pp.

120.
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Latin               American               Perspectives.

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"First,               Second,               Third,               Fourth,               Fifth,               and               Sixth               Declarations               of               the               Lacandon               Jungle".

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               Collier,               George               A.

and               Quaratiello,               Elizabeth               Lowery.

Basta!

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"An               Interview               with               Subcommandante               Insurgente               Marcos,               Spokesperson               and               Military               Commander               of               the               Zapatista               National               Liberation               Army".

International               Affairs.

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Beyond               Resistence:               Everything.

An               Interview               with               Subcommanadate               Marcos.

Paddington               (Aus).

Paper               Boat               Press.

2008.
               Eichert,               Benjamin               and               Rowley,               Rick.

Zapatista.

A               Big               Noise               Film.

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               Galeano,               Eduardo.

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New               York.

Nation               Books.

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               Henck,               Nicholas.

Broadening               the               Struggle               and               Winning               the               Media               War:               'Marcos               Mystique,'               Guerilla               Chic,               and               Zapatista               PR.

Montreal.

Kersplebedeb               2002.
               Klein,               Naomi.

"Farewell               to               the               End               of               History:               Organization               and               Vision               in               Anti-Corporate               Movements".

The               Socialist               Register.

London:               Merlin               Press               (2002):               pp.

1-14.
               Klein,               Naomi.

"The               Unknown               Icon".

First               appeared               in               The               Guardian               (March               3rd,               2001)               http://www.naomiklein.org.
               Maddens,               Bart               and               Vanden               Berghe,               Kristine.

"Ethnocentrism,               Nationalism,               and               Post-Nationalism               in               the               Tales               of               Subcommandante               Marcos".

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"The               Reform               of               Article               27               and               Urbanisation               of               the               Ejido               in               Mexico".

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123-132;               translated               in               Zapatista               Reader.
               Nash,               June.

"The               Reassertion               of               Indigenous               Identity:               Maya               Responses               to               State               Intervention               in               Chiapas".

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http://mondediplo.com/1997/09/marcos               (April               2001).
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